Abstract
Trichoderma has been found to have effectiveness against a vast range of plant diseases and can be a good alternative biocontrol strategy in the modern era of plant disease management. It has been found effective against soil borne pathogens and nematodes. Trichoderma has been isolated from variable soils and has multifaceted application other than disease management. Trichoderma enhances plant growth and development by boosting the plant’s capacity to absorb nutrients, increasing systemic resistance to pest and/or pathogen attacks in the future, increasing tolerance to abiotic stresses (such as salinity, drought, and low temperatures). For instance, the stress on organic management in the modern cropping system, Trichoderma is a promising soil enhancer and can have handful applicability for diseases particularly those of soil borne ones. Its competitive mechanism and antagonistic approaches to compete with other pathogens makes it a good fit for future crop management strategies.
Keywords
- Trichoderma
- root rot
- apple
- competition
- antagonist
1. Introduction
Plant disease management is one of the important strategies for a way forward towards sustainable agriculture and food security. Presently, crop output is being increased by applying herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, fertilizers, nematicides, and soil amendments [1]. Although using pesticides has some advantages, worries about pesticide residue in food are constantly growing. There is growing evidence that pesticide residue in food can have negative effects on both human health and the environment [2]. Most of these pesticides cause chronic toxicities such as genotoxicity, causing disruption in hormonal functions particularly endocrine, kidney damage, reproductive toxicity, alterations in metabolism, liver and bladder toxicity, gastrointestinal problems, etc. in addition to being potential human carcinogens, mutagens, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors [3, 4, 5]. Taking account to a Joint UNEP and WHO research, 3 million people worldwide are poisoned by pesticides each year, killing about 200,000 people worldwide [6]. Even while high-income countries utilize large quantities of pesticides, the vast majority (95%) of pesticide poisoning incidents take place in developing countries as a result of ignorance, abuse, inappropriate management, etc. [7].
As a result, in recent years, consumers have grown increasingly concerned about the detrimental effects these synthetic fungicides have on both human well-being and the environment. Therefore, research into alternate methods of crop protection has been mandated and has gathered considerable interest from scientists all around the world. The use of biological controls by means of advantageous microorganisms has become increasingly important among these alternatives. Over millions of years of evolution, microorganisms have evolved the ability to detoxify heavy metal ions and pesticides and have become resistant to intoxicants. As a result, they have contributed to the long-term environmental benefits of restoring degraded environments to their natural state [8]. Several biological control agents (BCAs), including
Among the various biocontrol agents like bacteria, fungus and others, the use of
Species/strain | Biocontrol option | Reference |
---|---|---|
Pepper damping off | [16] | |
Cereal cyst nematodes | [17] | |
Pepper and Potato | [18, 19, 20, 21] | |
[22] | ||
Apple canker | [14] | |
[23, 24] | ||
[25] | ||
[26] | ||
[27] |
Table 1.
Studies across the world have revealed that
2. Morphological identification of Trichoderma
A unique sweet or coconut aroma is given off by several species. When examined under a microscope, conidiophores are either borne by the sparse aerial hyphae or are heavily branching, loosely or compactly tufted, frequently formed in various concentric rings, and so on. It is presumable that the typical
3. Mechanism of Trichoderma
As biocontrol agents against plant fungal infections,
3.1 Mycoparasitism
Mycoparasitism refers to the direct attack of one fungus on another, also known as direct antagonism [43]. This idea was first proposed in the work of Weindling [44], who revealed how
It was speculated decades back that mycelium permeates the host by gradually degrading its cell wall [49]. Following that, it became apparent that
It is interesting to take into account that signals leading to the synthesis of cell wall-degrading enzymes, the signal these enzymes produce, and the regulation of their expression in
Furthermore, at least three
Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed that before coming into contact with the host hyphae, the
3.2 Plant interactions
The synthesis of phytohormones is an intriguing idea that might help to explain how We surveyed the
3.3 Priming of plant defense responses
The molecular basis of the induced systemic resistance (ISR) brought on by
3.3.1 Salicylic acid
One of the most crucial defenses against biotrophic fungus is facilitated by salicylic acid (SA), a phenolic molecule that is accountable for a variety of physiological actions in plants. It also serves as a signal molecule during plant defense. The isochorismate pathway (IC) and the phenylpropanoid pathway are the two processes through which SA is produced in plants. Both pathways start with chorismate as a precursor, which is the end product of the shikimate pathway [83]. Whereas PAL is an important enzyme that catalyzes the preliminary step in the phenylpropanoid route, converting phenylalanine into cinnamic acid, IC synthase (ICS or SID2) is an important enzyme which catalyzes the initial part of the IC pathway, transforming chorismate into isochorismate [83].
3.4 Plant growth stimulation
Numerous studies showing that
3.4.1 Auxins
Auxins are a series of indole-derived substances that, among other biological functions, control root initiation, cell division, and elongation in plants. Auxin-producing fungi, that mainly affect the germination of spores and elongation of cells, have been illustrated to encompass certain phytopathogenic fungi, notably species of
3.4.2 Cytokinins
Plant hormones known as cytokinins play functions related to nutrition balance, stress tolerance, root and shoot division, and cell differentiation [94]. CKs play a central role in the development of defensive mechanisms and plant-microbe interactions. Exogenous administration of CKs to
3.4.3 Gibberellins
Gibberellins are the plant hormones that promote growth by breaking down the DELLA proteins that inhibit it [102]. Since its discovery in
3.4.4 Ethylene
A gaseous phytohormone called ethylene is involved in the germination of seeds, fruit ripening, and senescence of plants [106]. By influencing simultaneously the SA and JA pathways, ethylene also contributes to plant immunity [105]. Sadenosyl-L-Methionine (S-AdoMet) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) serve as the precursors for the manufacture of ethylene in plants. The key enzymes that catalyze this route are S-AdoMet synthetase (SAM), ACC synthase (ACS), and ACC oxidase (ACO) [107]. Numerous fungi, particularly
3.4.5 Abscisic acid
A plant hormones called abscisic acid is a compound that modulates the dormancy of seeds and development, stomatal aperture, and enables plants withstand abiotic conditions including drought and excessive salinity [111]. ABA can have either an advantageous or detrimental effect on defense in plant-pathogen interactions [112]. For instance, ABA has a favorable effect when interacting with
4. Conclusion
Although increasing crop productivity, the indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides has created environment related problems. The microbial application having role in green technologies may offer alternative to chemical pesticides.
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