Perspective Chapter: Metacognitive Learning Strategy

Abstract

Metacognition is an important aspect of learning because metacognition affects a person’s learning process. Metacognition is also a strong predictor of academic success and problem solving. To improve students’ metacognition skills, appropriate learning strategies are needed. Metacognitive learning strategy is one strategy that has the potential to improve students’ metacognitive abilities. This study aims to produce metacognitive learning strategy. The research design used is Research and Development, which refers to the 4D development model from Thiagarajan, namely Define, Design, Develop, and Disseminate. The define, design, and develop stages produce valid, practical, and effective metacognitive learning strategy. Validation of learning strategy and tools was carried out by three experts in the field of chemistry education. The development of metacognitive learning strategy was carried out through limited trials and implementation was carried out on the undergraduate students of Chemistry Education Study Program in Malang Indonesia, in the Organic Chemistry I course. The resulting metacognitive learning strategy is called PDCA Metacognitive Learning Strategy (Preparing, Doing, Checking, and Assessing & Following-Up).

1. Introduction

The lecturing format based on textbooks still dominates learning today, although many active student-based learning models are known [1]. Learning in this way causes students to learn by rote learning, inhibiting the development of critical thinking and meaningful learning [2]. Some of the reasons for using the lecture learning method are to cover all the material that must be taught and still be able to control the class [1]. Textbook-based learning often fails, due to low student attention, simplifying examples, and too much material being presented at one time [3], as well as resulting in superficial understanding [2].

The results showed that students’ understanding of the relationship between molecular structure and its properties was still low. For example, there are still many students who cannot apply their knowledge of hydrogen bonding in interpreting physical properties and molecular spectra data despite understanding the concept of hydrogen bonding. Some students experience misconceptions in explaining the concept of boiling point associated with hydrogen bonding [4]. There are still many students who have difficulty connecting the concepts learned with other related concepts. Understanding of the relationship between concepts in chemistry/science is still very minimal. Students have difficulty explaining the properties of compounds based on their molecular structure. For example, students assume that if a liquid boils, then there is a break of covalent bonds in the molecules of the compound. There are still many students who consider that if a substance melts (melts) there is a break in covalent bonds (and not bonds between molecules [5].

Only a small (1.35%) of students were able to understand the relationship of molecular structure to compound properties with scientific mental models (Scientifically Correct, SC), 98.65% alternative mental models (5.53% mental models of type NR (No Response), 42.57% type SM (Specific Misconceptions), and 50.54% of PC type (Partially Correct). In general, students cannot yet understand the relationship of molecular structure to the properties of compounds, which includes representations of the three levels of chemistry and their interconnections [6]. The author’s experience in learning the material and the properties of compounds shows that only about 25% of students can do problems that relate two or more variables. This data is a challenge for chemistry/science teachers.

Future chemistry/science teachers are teachers who master the three pillars of knowledge, namely content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge [7, 8]. In addition to these three pillars, in the era of technology, teachers must master technological knowledge [9]. Content knowledge states knowledge of the material to be taught. Pedagogic knowledge expresses general knowledge of how students learn or in a special sense expresses ability about methods/ways of teaching material to students. Pedagogic content knowledge is special knowledge to teach certain topics to certain students under certain conditions (PCK = pedagogical content knowledge).

Content knowledge (CK) is an important aspect in learning because, without adequate content knowledge, teachers will not be able to teach well. Content knowledge is the teacher’s knowledge of the material to be studied or taught to students. Content knowledge includes knowledge of concepts, theories, ideas, scientific organizational frameworks, evidence and how to prove, and approaches to developing that knowledge. Content aspects in science include knowledge of scientific facts and theories, the scientific method, and evidence-based reasoning [9]. A teacher can teach his/her students well if he masters the learning content to be taught. Teachers who understand learning content well can explain concepts well and use best learning practices that support concept construction and development of abstract concepts by their students [10].

Understanding of learning content occurs when the learning experience experienced is meaningful learning. In learning, it means that a knowledge/concept is understood as a unity with knowledge/concepts that have been understood before. Previous knowledge is more specifically mastered knowledge needed to understand the new knowledge being learned called prior knowledge [11]. The link between initial knowledge and new knowledge learned will form a broader knowledge build with consistent meaning. Early knowledge acts as an advance organizer [12]. Meaningful learning occurs when students are involved in learning that is directed at goals that have been understood/mutually agreed, students are actively involved in learning, and there is multidirectional interaction (student with student, student with teacher, student with media and learning resources) so that there is a construction of concepts in students and authentic assessment (measuring complex and contextual abilities).

Learning carried out by teachers/lecturers is directed to help students build knowledge and thinking skills so that they can find relationships between the concepts learned and use the understanding of these concepts to explain relevant phenomena. One example is finding relationships between molecular structure and macroscopic properties in meaningful learning [13]. The reality shows that the learning carried out by teachers/lecturers in the classroom is still dominated by conventional learning/approaches [1, 2]. Empirical evidence shows that conventional learning/approaches cannot assist students in developing an understanding of the relationship between structure and compound properties. Student learning experiences cannot help develop an adequate conceptual framework.

Evidence shows that students’ understanding of the relationship between molecular structure and its properties is still low, for example, there are still many students who cannot apply their knowledge of hydrogen bonds in interpreting physical properties and molecular spectra data, even though they understand the concept of hydrogen bonding. Some students experience misconceptions in explaining the concept of boiling point associated with hydrogen bonds. To overcome these problems, it is necessary to apply appropriate learning strategies [4].

One of the efforts that can be made to overcome these problems is to choose/apply the right learning strategy. Choosing the right learning strategy is an important aspect that is carried out so that students can master the concepts learned in depth and their application in the appropriate context. The strategies chosen in learning must be able to improve critical thinking skills, equip students with problem-solving skills and strategies in a broader context, and provide a model of knowledge about how a person learns. These aspects are included in the higher-order thinking component, which consists of (1) problem-solving skills, (2) creative thinking, (3) critical thinking, and (4) decision-making [14, 15].

Starting in the late twentieth century, science learning shifted from learning that required students to memorize facts to learning as a way of figuring out and thinking [16]. Metacognitive learning strategies are one alternative strategy that is suitable and meets the demands of these needs. The use of metacognitive learning strategies allows learners to develop their metacognitive knowledge and skills. Both components of metacognition are important aspects of science learning. In this learning, students are expected to be able to describe objects and events, ask questions, construct scientific explanations, test explanations with appropriate scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas. In this way, students actively build understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning (scientific explanation) and thinking skills.

The ability of students to construct scientific explanations is one of the benchmarks for students’ understanding of the concepts learned and the relationship between concepts, as well as their application in appropriate contexts. Understanding of the material studied affects students’ ability to use effectively the evidence in scientific explanations made. In constructing scientific explanations, students must be able to obtain, select, and use data as evidence to support claims. Generally, students have difficulty in such complex tasks. Even someone who has had considerable educational experience and is an expert also has difficulty in distinguishing evidence from theory and using evidence to support claims [17]. In addition, students also still have difficulties in choosing the right and appropriate evidence [18].

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, there has also been a paradigm shift in learning in schools, where a new approach is used that considers aspects of literacy as important to deal with the complexity of contemporary life. The development of information and knowledge systems has an impact on shifting the paradigm from just knowing information to being able to remember and process information to be able to find and use it effectively. The learning process is not only applied to the relationship of stimulus and response (S-R) and the provision of reinforcement but also related to logical and rational relationships that involve the process of acquisition or change from within (insight), outlook (outlook), expectations or patterns of thinking [19].

The development of cognitive science recognizes the importance of thinking and problem-solving in learning. Learning is closely related to thinking and reasoning. If a person understands certain knowledge, then he is able to use that knowledge to solve new relevant problems. In line with this thinking, current learning practices emphasize learning with understanding [20]. Understanding a topic means being able to think and act creatively and competently with what is known about the topic [21]. An important implication of this view is that mental processes related to thinking are not limited to some level of learning. Instead, thinking skills determine learning success even at the basic level of reading, math, and all other subjects in school. If knowledge acquisition is defined as learning by understanding, then learning cannot occur without thinking [22]. Therefore, students’ understanding can be improved by practicing thinking and reasoning skills in learning.

According to Wong et al. [23], thinking cannot occur spontaneously but must be generated by problems and questions or by giving some conflict (cognitive conflict). Dewey’s concept of thinking fits with the results of research on metacognitive learning strategies and the importance of teaching students to think about their thought processes [24]. According to Marzano et al. [25], the dimension of thinking is expressed by the dimension of learning. In Marzano’s learning dimension, metacognition is the highest dimension of learning. Educators have used the learning dimension as a reference in developing learning strategies, lesson planning and assessment, making systematic reforms, and determining what students must master to solve each problem and make decisions in various situations [26].

Wilson and Bai [27] conducted research on the relationship between teachers’ metacognitive knowledge and pedagogic understanding of metacognition. The results showed that teachers’ metacognitive knowledge had an impact on their understanding of metacognition. Teachers who have a better understanding of metacognition teach their students to be metacognitive, a complex understanding of metacognition and metacognition thinking strategies. Effective learning not only improves the quality of learning but also helps students to develop the metacognitive skills necessary to master higher levels and to reconstruct conceptual knowledge and procedural strategies if needed [28]. Undergraduates’ students reading comprehension in the metacognitive group was significantly higher than the students in the conventional reading group [29].

Based on the results of theoretical studies and research results, it is known that metacognition is an important aspect of learning. The use of metacognitive strategies facilitates students mastering/improving mastery of the components of metacognition, namely metacognitive knowledge and skills. Mastery of metacognition knowledge through meaningful learning in metacognitive strategies increases students’ reasoning abilities because the three components of cognition knowledge are what (declarative), why (conditional), and how (procedural) trigger the development of students’ thinking skills. If the student is faced with a certain phenomenon, then he will activate the components of his metacognitive knowledge. If the three components of metacognitive knowledge can develop well, then students can construct scientific explanations well.

Christ (1988) developed a metacognitive learning strategy, consisting of four steps, namely preview, learn, review, and study. Ref. [13] adapted Christ’s model to develop a metacognitive learning strategy called the learning cycle, which consists of five steps, namely preview, attend, review, study, and assessment. This model provides students with strategies that can be applied to improve their learning skills and monitor their learning strategies. The five steps are: (1) Preview: preview before class—read a short chapter, underline/follow important words, review the summary, find the purpose of the chapter, and compile questions that the teacher will ask to students. (2) Attend: activities in class, answering and asking questions, and making important defects. (3) Review: immediately after in class—make defects, fill in gaps, and write each question. (4) Study: Ask questions such as why, how, and how if, ......, and (5) Assess: assess learning — periodically check readiness: (a) Am I using the learning method effectively? and (b) Do I understand enough material to teach other friends?

The results of research conducted [13] on the application of metacognitive strategies in basic chemistry obtained several findings, including (1) students are more motivated in participating in basic chemistry learning (especially students majoring in health), (2) after being introduced to Bloom’s taxonomy, students understand the importance and how to develop higher-order thinking skills, (3) students know ways of learning other than memorization, and (4) after students using these strategies and feeling a better understanding and success, his ability/performance continues to improve, and is motivated to continue using the way of learning.

The model developed by Cook et al. has not expressly conditioned students to associate with the prior knowledge needed to understand new material. In addition, at the final stage of learning, there is no assessment of student understanding after strengthening learning and also no follow-up activities on learning outcomes associated with subsequent learning activities. The authors developed a metacognitive learning strategy adapted from the model of Cook et al.

The metacognitive learning strategy developed consists of four steps, namely preparing (preparation), doing (study), checking (monitoring), and assessing and following-up (assessment and follow-up) abbreviated as PDCA. The steps are developed as in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Stages of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy.

Information:

: Step flow.

: Occurs in process.

PDCA metacognitive learning strategy is developed based on metacognition theory [29], meaningful learning theory [12], constructionism theory [30], active learning theory [31], and transfer of learning theory [32, 33] learning theory, and self-regulation learning theory (self-regulated learning) [34].

The environment that supports PDCA metacognitive learning strategy is a learning environment that allows students to understand their learning objectives, prerequisite knowledge, and cognition knowledge and determine how to learn to construct the concepts they learn through their activities in class together with other friends, and evaluate their learning. Therefore, the role of teachers/lecturers is to facilitate students to identify and formulate their learning goals, recognize the knowledge that has been mastered that is needed to learn new material (prerequisite knowledge), choose a way of learning that suits the learning style and characteristics of the material studied, monitor their learning progress, and evaluate the learning outcomes that have been formulated. Teachers/lecturers need to provide a learning environment that supports student learning activities, namely helping students access information sources (teaching materials), providing appropriate teaching materials, and organizing learning activities in class so that interaction between students and with learning resources can run well so that a cooperative learning atmosphere can occur. Teachers/lecturers must encourage learners to be actively involved in learning through discussions, presentations, and questions and answers so that concept construction can take place properly.

2. Characteristics of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy

PDCA metacognitive learning strategy is developed by combining metacognition theory with the concept of quality assurance based on relevant learning theories as described in the theoretical rational section. According to [35], a model/strategy can be used/applied to achieve goals if it meets four special characteristics, namely: (1) the design is prepared with logical theoretical rationales, (2) there is a rationale about the learning objectives to be achieved, (3) teacher and students activities are illustrated in learning so that the strategy can be implemented effectively, and (4) the learning environment needed so that the learning objectives can be achieved.

2.1 Rational

According to cognitive learning theory (Peaget), the learning process occurs in four stages: assimilation, accommodation, organization, and association (new balance). At the assimilation stage, students receive new information that is being studied, which leads to an imbalance of existing cognitive structures (schematics). In the accommodation phase, students match the new information with existing cognitive structures. At the organizational stage, there is an adjustment of new cognitive structures due to the interaction between schematics and new information received, while in the final stage, new cognitive structures are formed as a result of learning.

The accommodation process can occur if the new information received by students is not something new at all, but there is information related to information that has been mastered/learned before, which is called initial knowledge or prior knowledge. Prior knowledge is all the knowledge that students have when entering a learning environment that is potentially relevant to acquiring new knowledge [11]. Prior knowledge can also be expressed as all the knowledge that students have, both knowledge about content (content), strategies, and personal knowledge when the person concerned will learn new material.

Prior knowledge is an important factor influencing learning [12]. Prior knowledge is an important variable because it is the foundation for learning achievement in optimal learning. Optimal learning occurs when the material learned is compatible with the prior knowledge. In other words, students can learn well if the prior knowledge/prerequisites have been mastered. Differences in prior knowledge are an important source of individual differences in the classroom. Students who have a prior knowledge of procedural and declarative knowledge (part of metacognitive knowledge) are stronger in a topic, then the student is able to learn new information better in that topic [36].

The results showed a correlation between the quantity and quality of prior knowledge with the acquisition of knowledge and high-level problem-solving abilities. Prior knowledge can explain 81% of the variance in final test scores [37]. If the student’s prior knowledge is not suitable and does not match, it will be able to hinder the learning process.

Prior knowledge affects learning achievement in three ways [38]. First, prior knowledge has a direct effect by facilitating the learning process thus leading to better learning outcomes. Second, prior knowledge affects indirectly by optimizing the clarity of teaching material. Third, prior knowledge indirectly affects learning outcomes by optimizing study and learning time.

Prior knowledge is also a very important variable in the view of educational psychology. The knowledge a person has is largely determined by what has been learned and remembered [39]. Understanding is the best manifestation as a result of the interaction between the content learned and prior knowledge. Prior knowledge directly facilitates the learning process and leads to better learning outcomes. Prior knowledge indirectly optimizes the clarity of teaching materials and the use of study time. Prior knowledge and access to relevant cognitive structures enhance learning acquisition. Prior knowledge is a better predictor of learning outcomes compared to intelligence [40, 41].

If students associate appropriate knowledge, they already have with the material being studied, their understanding will increase. Good learners always try to associate what is being learned with what is already known. If the teacher can facilitate these activities before, during, and after the lesson then the teacher has taught critical understanding strategies. Good learners use these abilities unconsciously (happen automatically). The use of such strategies explicitly results in deep understanding and results in independent learners. If students learn by relating their experiences to the material being studied, they have a foundation and help, from which they can place new facts, ideas, and concepts that are being learned.

If the student activates and associates prior knowledge with the material studied, then the student performs activities using an organizer graph, such as concept map or flow chart to map his thoughts. Often students associate with journals, where students record thoughts, feelings, insights, and questions about the material being studied. Students can discuss and write the connections they make in small or large groups.

Prior knowledge encourages meaningful learning. According to Ausubel and Piaget [12], meaningful learning occurs when what students learn is not something new at all. This means that within the cognitive structure of the student, there has been an understanding of the concepts related to what is learned (prior knowledge). In order for students to obtain meaningful learning, students must know the purpose of learning a material and know what prior knowledge is needed/mastered beforehand. A very important role of the teacher is to create a learning situation to make students aware of the relationship so that the learning experienced by students becomes meaningful learning.

Prior knowledge is an important component for happening of meaningful learning. Meaningful learning occurs if three main components are fulfilled, namely: (1) students must have prior knowledge to master new knowledge, (2) new knowledge must be meaningfully relevant to the knowledge they already have, and (3) students “must be aware” and deliberately connect new knowledge with knowledge that has been previously possessed [42, 43]. Learning is meaningfully opposite to rote learning, where new concepts learned are not related to each other, but only memorized so that there is no transfer process.

Learning in the classroom not only presents the material being studied but also prepares suitable physical conditions during the learning process so that the transfer process occurs, namely applying the knowledge that has been obtained into new relevant situations. Failure of the transfer process will lead to failure of thinking [44]. Metacognition is a cognitive approach to facilitate transfer. Transfer learning includes cognition, teaching, and reasoning, which is a creative activity with unlimited potential to influence the way learning is perceived.

The results of research in the field of metacognition recognize a new approach to transfer, namely a strategy where students ask questions of themselves known as self-reflection about the learning process. Lemons et al. [45] developed a design called a learning community that aims, among others, to improve learning outcomes and their application. Students are involved in studying modules in groups and various group discussions designed to increase students’ active involvement and participation in the learning process.

According to the constructivist view, knowledge construction and learning occur when students engage in activities that produce products or works. Students will be more interested in engaging in learning if what is learned (the product produced) is personally relevant and meaningful in their daily lives [46].

One important aspect in educational psychology is that teachers must facilitate students to construct their own knowledge [31] so that the most suitable learning is active learning. Metacognitive strategy is one of the applications of active learning that facilitates students to reflect on their learning process to achieve learning goals [47].

One of the principles of student-centered learning psychology says that successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulated, and responsible for their learning [48]. These activities are depicted in metacognitive strategies. According to Vygotsky, knowledge is constructed when students engage socially in discussion, experimentation, and experience [48], interacting with media that culturally help shape their understanding [44].

In the learning process, teachers must present a learning environment that allows students to construct their own knowledge [49]. The learning environment largely determines whether students can be mentally actively engaged or not. A good learning environment encourages transfer between content domains and also between learning situations and daily life [50]. The teacher’s activity in learning largely determines whether students can learn well and determines the quality of learning. Teachers are not only required to have pedagogical knowledge of teaching methods and content knowledge about the topics taught but also must master pedagogical content knowledge (PCK = pedagogical content knowledge), that is. awareness of how students build knowledge in a particular content domain [51].

The strategy of delivering and reviewing material little by little, which is carried out periodically allows material to be transferred to long-term memory and reduces the burden of piling up before the exam [13]. At this stage, students check/monitor/review whether the planned learning strategy has taken place as expected. Whether the chosen strategy is effective enough to be used to solve the task. This activity is a self-reflection on learning activities associated with plans that have been prepared at an early stage (preparing). Monitoring activities during the learning process, testing, revising, and evaluating the effectiveness of the strategies used is one of the efforts to direct learning [52]. Students relate and associate concepts that exist to subordinate elements in their cognitive structure. At this stage, there is an organization of new information that is adjusted to the information already owned in the cognitive structure so that new understanding is formed.

Monitoring comprehension and evaluating progress toward task completion are metacognitive activities [53]. Monitoring includes assessment of learning, understanding, and strategies used [54]. A good learner is a reflective learner, who is able to think deeply and critically about his own learning [55].

Assessment of learning outcomes has a role, among others, to help students find out learning outcomes. Based on the assessment of learning outcomes, teachers and students can obtain information about learning weaknesses and strengths. By knowing their weaknesses and strengths, teachers and students have a clear direction on what needs to be improved and can reflect on what they are doing in learning. In addition, for students, it is possible to transfer their learning methods to overcome their weaknesses. Assessment of learning outcomes by teachers has a function to monitor learning progress, monitor learning outcomes, and detect the need for continuous improvement of student learning outcomes.

Assessment is one part of the metacognitive setting [56]. Assessing outcomes according to efficiency and effectiveness criteria is one way of directing learning [57]. Successful learners are learners who focus on learning objectives. Monitoring goal achievement is part of the self-regulated learning model [34].

In the context of standard-based education, competency-based curriculum, and mastery learning approach assessment of learning processes and outcomes are parameters for the minimum level of competency achievement. For this reason, various approaches, strategies, methods, techniques, and learning models need to be developed to facilitate students to easily learn and achieve optimal learning success.

Follow-up activities (following-up) are carried out to strengthen students’ understanding of the material that has been learned. This activity can be in the form of making summaries, concept maps, or other assignments that match the characteristics of the material. Included in this stage is to use the understanding that has been gained to plan activities in the next learning so that the learning packages carried out by students are learning cycles (four stages of learning).

2.2 Social system

The social system built in PDCA metacognitive learning is a social system that allows multidirectional communication (teacher-student, student-student, student-media, student-learning resource) that the teacher seeks so that students are actively involved in learning to find and interpret as many facts as possible so that there can be construction of understanding by students. In order for the social system to be formed, learning is designed from the beginning (by design). For example, relevant teaching materials are prepared, appropriate media are used, and in group learning a cooperative group is formed. Teachers facilitate the learning atmosphere in groups and in the classroom so that mutual honing and nurturing learning occurs, and there is a healthy climate of competition between groups, so that students’ reasoning skills can develop.

The social system built into learning is based on cooperative learning, meaning that each student engages and cooperates in learning to achieve a common goal. Each student learns from each other and depends on each other to master the concepts learned. Teachers/lecturers play a role in encouraging the creation of these conditions. The involvement of teachers/lecturers in learning is as a facilitator so that active learning occurs.

2.3 Response principle

The response given at each step of learning is to assist students in constructing and expressing their conceptions. If there are questions asked by students, the teacher/lecturer does not answer the question directly but students are guided by guiding questions to explore understanding and help students construct concepts. Teachers/lecturers also need to encourage students to question their understanding to themselves (self-questions) in an effort to monitor and evaluate their learning.

2.4 Support system

Every component of learning that supports metacognitive learning must be pursued and facilitated by teachers/lecturers. The system/conditions created by teachers/lecturers should encourage students to be ready to learn, set learning goals, choose appropriate learning methods, set study times, be actively involved in learning, and monitor and evaluate learning. Teachers/lecturers need to have an understanding related to the processes and strategies that support meaningful learning. For this reason, it is necessary to master the theory of meaningful learning [12], constructivism theory, active student learning models (active learning), and self-regulated learning theory (self-regulated learning).

2.5 Goals

The development of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy aims to provide meaningful learning experiences for students in order to construct their understanding in learning new material so that their learning outcomes are better.

2.6 Activities of teachers/lecturers and students in learning

PDCA metacognitive learning strategy was developed based on a constructivist approach, which is a student-centered learning strategy. This learning strategy consists of 4 (four) stages, namely preparing (P), doing (D), checking (C), and assessing & following-up (A) abbreviated as PDCA. Learning steps are arranged based on metacognitive theory and steps in the quality assurance process so that the flow of learning activities experienced by students is a planned, organized, and monitored learning experience to provide opportunities for students to control their learning and construct their understanding deeply.

The learning steps that have been prepared are used as a reference for compiling learning tools. Based on the results of the development that has been carried out, the stages of the strategy as shown in Figure 1 are obtained. An explanation of each step in PDCA metacognitive learning strategy is described as follows.

2.6.1 Preparing

This stage aims to prepare students to participate in classroom learning. Before learning in class, teachers/lecturers provide teaching materials/hand-outs to students, and students are asked to preview the material to be learned by reading the material while marking important parts, underlining, summarizing, reading, and interpreting pictures/tables/graphs that are useful for students when participating in classroom learning. Through previews, students can recognize patterns and increase interest and courage to ask questions.

According to the model [58], at this stage, students check their learning environment to understand the profile of the assignment given. The profile intrinsically blends perceptions of purpose and attitudes about the task [59] and other motivational information, such as decisions about self-efficacy. The result of this stage is an idiosyncratic description of the task according to the student (learner). After framing the task, the learner sets goals and a work plan to complete the task. Next, students choose strategies and ways to complete the task. The preparation stage aims to mentally prepare students to receive the new material learned. At this stage, it is also agreed what activities will be carried out in learning.

2.6.2 Doing (study)

At this stage, students are involved in learning activities that have been designed and used in the previous stage. Teachers/lecturers facilitate students to be actively involved in learning through discussions, questions and answers, completing assignments, presentations, and or making concept maps/mind-maps. Through these activities, students construct their understanding with the guidance of teachers/lecturers. According to learning, the introduction of concepts is easier for students to understand if elaborated and developed from general concepts (global) to smaller/simpler concepts.

In order for directed learning teachers/lecturers provide discussion sheets or provide problems for students to discuss/solve in groups. According to Vygotsky’s theory, students learn through interaction with others or peers who are more capable [31]. Through group learning, it is hoped that mutual learning can occur between friends in groups or between groups. Teachers/lecturers monitor student learning activities, and direct learning and help students if they experience difficulties.

2.6.3 Checking (monitoring)

In this step, students are facilitated to check/review their learning. Reviews are conducted immediately after learning or even during learning to help students identify overlapping materials between those obtained in class and those read in books, correct any misconceptions discussed in class, and determine whether appropriate assistance and planning are needed. In this step, students also check whether the chosen method or way of learning is appropriate. This step can overlap with the previous step, meaning it can be done together with the previous step.

2.6.4 Assessing and following-up

At this stage, an assessment of performance/learning outcomes of learning tasks is carried out. In addition, the arrangement of emotional responses related to learning outcomes and experiences is also carried out. Teachers/lecturers need to anticipate cognitive conflicts by arranging the relationship of concepts through a conceptual hierarchy.

Assessment helps students find out their learning outcomes (outcomes), which are expressed in the form of learning objectives that have been formulated at the beginning of learning. The results of the assessment can be used by teachers/lecturers and students to obtain information about the strengths and weaknesses of learning that has been done so that a clear direction is known about what must be improved and can reflect on what is done in learning.

The end of this step is the follow-up carried out by teachers/lecturers with students, for example, whether additional tasks are needed, whether remedial learning is needed, or can be continued for the next material. If the final conclusion is chosen, the learning plan starts from the first step as before so that the four steps repeat as a cycle.

The four steps in PDCA metacognitive learning strategy facilitate students to organize their learning well starting from planning/preparing, doing, monitoring, and evaluating. If the four stages can be done well, student learning becomes a complete learning activity by activating all the components of metacognition it has. These three components of metacognition skills allow students to facilitate learning and their abilities [28]. Empirical studies show that students who learn metacognitively show better results than those who do not. The more students are aware of the effectiveness of their learning strategies, the higher their learning outcomes [60]. Individuals who have a high level of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skills are able to recognize parts of learning as soon as possible and change their tools or strategies to achieve goals [61].

2.7 The learning environment necessary to achieve goals

The important thing that teachers/lecturers must do in implementing PDCA metacognitive learning strategies is to create conditions or learning environments that allow the four steps in learning to be carried out properly. Before learning activities (pre-learning) teachers/lecturers need to convey about the role of students in metacognitive learning. In this activity, students are oriented to determine learning objectives, review learning materials, identify the necessary prior knowledge, choose a suitable way of learning, identify important concepts, and make a list of questions.

During classroom learning activities, students must be actively involved in learning. Concept construction by students occurs through active learning activities (discussions, questions and answers, lab activities, presentations) that are well-planned, so as to create meaningful learning. The role of teachers/lecturers is to facilitate learning activities so that active learning activities can take place in a directed manner. Learning tasks given by teachers/lecturers must stimulate students to be active in activities. The role of teachers/lecturers is to encourage and direct students to play an active role in learning and strive to achieve the goals that have been set. Facilitating learning activities, such as this requires a structured learning environment so that students can construct their understanding based on the prior knowledge they have and with the meaningful learning experience experienced.

An important aspect that must be considered by teachers/lecturers is to facilitate students to evaluate their learning. Through this activity, students evaluate whether the learning goals that have been set have been achieved, whether the learning method chosen is in accordance with the characteristics of the material and learning style, and make decisions about what will be done in the next learning activity.

2.8 Theoretical and empirical argumentation stages of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy

Theoretical and empirical argumentation stages of PDCA metacognitive learning strategies.

is presented in Table 1.

No	Tahapan Pembelajaran	Argumentasi teoritik dan empirik
1.	Preparing (P)	Prior knowledge is an important factor influencing learning [12]. Meaningful learning occurs if the material learned is related to what is already. Known/understood (prior knowledge). Prior knowledge can account for 81% of the variation in final test scores [37]. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, and accountable for their learning [62]. Connect new information with prior knowledge and choose thinking strategies include basic metacognitive strategies [63]. Learning that focuses on thinking skills provides opportunities for students to engage in task planning, be creative, and reflective [64].
2.	Doing (D)	Learning includes presenting the material being studied and preparing suitable physical conditions during the learning process so that the transfer and thinking process occurs [44]. One important aspect in educational psychology is that teachers must facilitate students to construct their own knowledge [30] so that the most suitable learning is active learning. Metacognitive strategy is one of the applications of active learning that facilitates students to reflect on their learning process to achieve learning objectives [65]. One of the principles of student-centered learning psychology says that successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulated, and responsible for their learning [57]. According to Vygotsky, knowledge is constructed when students engage socially in discussion, experimentation, and experience [66], interacting with media that culturally help shape their understanding [44]. Teachers can provide optimal learning opportunities by setting up a structured learning environment so that students can form an organized and balanced knowledge structure [50].
3.	Checking (C)	Monitoring activities during the learning process, testing, revising, and evaluating the effectiveness of the strategies used is one of the efforts to direct learning [67]. Monitoring comprehension and evaluating progress toward task completion are metacognitive activities [53]. Monitoring includes assessment of learning, understanding, and strategies used [54]. A good learner is a reflective learner, who is able to think deeply and critically about his/her own learning [55].
4.	Assessing & Following-up (A)	Evaluation is one part of the metacognitive setting [68]. Evaluating outcomes according to efficiency and effectiveness criteria is one way of directing learning [67]. Monitoring goal achievement is part of the self-regulated learning model [34].

Table 1.

Theoretical and empirical argumentation stages of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy.

3. Conclusion

Based on the results obtained, the following conclusions can be formulated

1. The validated forms of metacognitive learning strategies developed are:

   1. The syntax consists of four stages, namely preparing (P), doing (D), checking (C), and assessing & following-up (A).

   2. Named PDCA metacognitive learning strategies.

   3. Based on metacognition theory, meaningful learning theory, constructionism theory, active learning theory, transfer of learning theory, mastery learning theory, and self-regulated learning theory.

   4. Aims to improve metacognitive abilities, build scientific explanations, learning achievement, and higher-order thinking of students.

2. The metacognitive learning strategy developed has qualified as a good learning strategy, with the following indicators.

   1. Have met the requirements of content validity (relevance) and construct validity (consistency) with very valid categories.

   2. Have met the practicality requirements, namely the stages of the SM-PDCA learning strategy can be implemented as a whole by lecturers with very high categories.

3. PDCA metacognitive learning strategies are effective in:

   1. Improving students’ metacognitive abilities in both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skills with N-Gains of 0.31 and 0.35, respectively.

   2. Improve students’ ability to build scientific explanations in both aspects, namely technical aspects and conceptual validity with N-Gain of 0.83 and 0.79 respectively. Increased ability to construct scientific explanations occurs proportionally balanced in both aspects of scientific explanation (technical aspects and conceptual validity).

   3. Increase student achievement with d-effect size and N-Gain by 3.39 and 0.56, respectively.

   4. Improve students’ higher-order thinking skills with d-effect size and N-Gain of 3.23 and 0.61, respectively. PDCA’s metacognitive strategies facilitate higher-order thinking improvement in low-group students (below the grade average) than high high-group students (above the grade average).

4. Based on student responses to questionnaires, information was obtained that:

   1. All students think that the tasks given before learning help prepare themselves for learning

   2. Students feel they can learn well through activities to prepare themselves to learn, choose and plan ways of learning, be actively involved in learning, monitor understanding, and evaluate their learning,

   3. Most (93%) students stated that the learning steps experienced made it possible to understand the material well,

   4. All students feel that the lecturer provides an opportunity to monitor their understanding, and

   5. Most (96%) students stated that the quiz given at the end of the lesson helped to find out the understanding of the material that had been learned.