The Impact of the Self-Determination Learning Model of Instruction in Improving School Task Performance Behaviors in Students with Mild to Moderate Intellectual Disabilities: A Multiple Baseline Design Study

Abstract

The development of programs aimed to promote self-determination in students with disabilities is a very popular research topic. Many of these programs have obtained the status of evidence-based practices, one being the Self-Determination Learning Model of Instruction. Although the literature emphasizes the link between self-determination and the school performance of students with disabilities, in Romanian research and educational practice there is a weak focus on specific programs to improve self-determined abilities, attitudes, and behaviors, these being rather in an early phase of study and application. The purpose of this study is to explore the effects of the impact of the Self-Determination Learning Model of Instruction on the academic performance of five students with intellectual disabilities. In this multiple baseline across participants design study, school performance is operationalized in reading comprehension skills, vocabulary communication skills, math problem solving, choice making, and goal setting and attainment. The preliminary adapted AIR Self-determination scale for Romanian students and individual observation checklists were used for each dependent variable to evaluate the competencies and indicators related to school performance in the baseline, treatment, and maintenance stages. Study findings indicated significant increases in the scores of behaviors and abilities observed throughout the experimental conditions, especially in the final intervention phase and maintenance stage. The academic performances of the five students were on an upward trend, remaining stable and robust over time. The results of the study showed improvements in students’ abilities for self-determination expressed through knowledge, abilities, and perception. Conclusion: The study is a novelty in self-determination research in Romania, directions for future research and implications for practice are discussed.

1. Introduction

In the educational and therapeutic practice of self-determination, the effects of programs and strategies aimed to improve the self-determination of students with disabilities are described in the literature, and some educational programs focused on improving self-determination have become evidence-based practices in the applied field of self-determination and, as a result of the benefits gained by students, their use in educational settings and practice has become common. In the educational practice approach, programs, instructional strategies, and interventions having evidence-based practice status are applied to develop and improve behaviors and skills related to self-determination. These programs, whether they are applied throughout a school year, semester, or during smaller sequences, have as a purpose the development of specific self-determination skills such as making choices and decision making, decisional behaviors skills, solving problems, goals attainment and setting, planning, self-management, and self-advocacy.

1.1 The school task performance and self-determination in the context of disability

The link between the school performance of children with disabilities and self-determination has been proven by researchers, many studies have found that skills associated with self-determination (e.g., goal setting and attainment, problem-solving, decision making) are critical in the learning process, and they are predictors of improved school and post-school academic outcomes [1, 2]. Several studies carried out on the subject of the relationship between school performance and self-determination have shown that the school and post-school academic results, as well as the higher performance in the educational and vocational domains, were consolidated especially during the transition activities, and were obviously marked and influenced by self-determination components (autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment, and self-realization) and skills (self-advocacy, auto-management, decisional behaviors) who can thus, under certain conditions, play the role of mediators or moderators [3, 4, 5]. The meta-analyses and systematic reviews on the effect of intervention programs have indicated the efficacy of several educational programs considered evidence-based practices in the self-determination domain, these educational interventions have an impact and strong direct effects in increasing the school performances of the students with disabilities, materialized by improving school outcomes, post-school academic results, and enhancing of socio-school behaviors and vocational skills [6, 7, 8, 9]. The positive school task performances behaviors that appeared either as direct effects of the implementation of evidence-based-practice or as indirect conditional effects, as a result of the influence manifested by self-determination through the prism of associated skills that can play the role of mediators or moderators will be benchmark points in access to higher education and university programs, higher employment rate, and successful inclusion of students with disabilities in socio-professional vocational communities.

1.2 Self-determination learning model of instruction: characteristics and efficiency

Self-Determination Learning Model of Instruction (SDLMI) is an evidence-based practice unanimously recognized in the self-determination literature, the implementation of this program had remarkable effects on the improvement of behaviors and skills associated with self-determination in students with disabilities. Based on the Causal Agent Theory [10], this educational program with the status of evidence-based practice in the self-determination and transition context [4, 6, 11, 12, 13] aims to enhance the self-determining actions, abilities, attitudes, pre-vocational and self-advocacy skills of students with and without disabilities [14, 15]. Researchers have supported the effectiveness of SDLMI in obtaining positive school and post-school outcomes, enhancing self-determining learning skills and behaviors [6, 16], access to the general education curriculum for students with disabilities [17], and academic and transition-related goal attainment [18, 19].

Starting from the premise that self-determination is a multifaceted construct, it turns out that interventions are multi-component, and they must have therapeutic objectives related to the improvement of a wide range of competent behaviors and self-determining attitudes [5]. Created in the 2000s by Wehmeyer and colleagues, SDLMI is a self-determination learning model intended for students with disabilities, presented in the form of a guide that supports educators to enable students to self-regulate and self-direct the learning process, and as a result, to engage the students in self-determining learning. Students in the process of learning self-determination set educational goals based on interests, personal skills, and needs; participate in establishing the interventions that lead to the achievement of the objectives; implement strategies that enable them to modify and regulate their behaviors; use strategies that allow them to track their goals and action plan if needed [12]. In the literature, there are many studies that explore the effects of SDLMI impact on the achievement of educational objectives [4, 9, 12, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].

1.3 Implementation of self-determination learning model of instruction in educational practice

Wehmeyer et al. [12] have established the primary SDLMI structure, with three phases included in SDLMI: Phase 1 - Set a Goal, Phase 2 - Take Action, and Phase 3 - Adjust Goal or Plan. In each phase of the program, teachers encourage students to answer four Student Questions which, in turn, correspond to Teacher Objectives that have the role of guiding learning. The program provides Educational Support to enable teachers to guide students to respond to the Student Questions and develop the skills associated with self-determined action that is needed to meet Teacher Objectives. Before the scheduled start of the program, together with Phase 1, the teachers initiate preliminary conversations with the students about the SDLMI objectives for that activity. In these conversations, teachers work with students to establish objectives, such as solving problems, setting objectives and ways to achieve them, and the roles assigned to teachers and students within the program, emphasizing that this process is different from an educational activity that involves typical teaching. The roles of the teacher in the program are those of facilitator, advocate, and instructor. Students learn to act self-directed, they are active learners, as well as self-advocates for what they need in the learning process to become successful. The teachers introduce the four key concepts used throughout the program implementation: objective, problem-solving, plan, and evaluation. When SDLMI is applied to students with major difficulties, teachers should consider several considerations related to the representation ways and the communication ways through which students have easier access to knowledge. These ways appeal to understanding and differentiated expression through oral and written language, illustrations, video materials, tutorials, and personal examples. The understanding of the specific roles as well as the key terms, happens differently from student to student, depending on the learning features and profile of each student, the learning needs, and background experiences. Therefore, the preliminary clarifying conversations must be without a time limit and lead to a full understanding of key concepts. Researchers indicated that SDLMI is built to be a program with cyclical processes, this means that the students will pass successively, repeatedly, and cyclically from one phase to another, until, through their work, they will move towards achieving the proposed objectives at the beginning of the program [26, 27]. Therefore, the students will grow in knowledge and skills, after which they will set new goals and action plans to achieve the overtime goals [5, 20].

1.4 The purpose of the present study

In the Romanian educational system, specific programs focusing on learning behaviors and skills related to self-determination are lacking. From the multitude of evidence-based practices in self-determination skills, we chose Self-Determination Learning Model of Instruction (SDLMI) [28], because it is tailored to the needs of students with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities and is very well structured in a hierarchical manner from simple to complex, and it is easy for students to follow it. The researchers showed that SDLMI can be successfully applied in the educational practice not only for learning self-determining behaviors but also for the purpose of improving school performance when students have to solve specific academic tasks [5, 28]. The present study aims to explore the impact of SDLMI in optimizing the performance obtained in solving academic tasks in the classroom and educational settings. In this research context, academic performance is operationalized as improving performance in school tasks, such as: (1) enhancing reading comprehension, (2) increasing vocabulary communication skills, (3) improving math problem-solving, (4) making choices in pre-vocational activities; (5) goal setting and attainment. The research questions are as followed:

Research question 1: Did the application of SDLMI increase the performance in school tasks and academic activities of the five students involved in the study?

Research question 2: Did the SDLMI improve self-determining capacities in terms of knowledge, perceptions, and abilities?

2. Method

2.1 Participants

In this study participated 5 students with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities enrolled in 8th grade in a special middle school from Iasi. According to the Romanian National Education Law, students follow a special curriculum for students with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities that is applied in special schools for students with special educational needs. For this research, the students were chosen from among the students enrolled in the 8th grade from a special middle school in Iasi, on the recommendation of the school psychologist and the multidisciplinary team of specialists and teachers, and educators who work with these students. The criteria that were the basis of the selection of these students were the following: (a) meeting the criteria for mild and moderate intellectual deficiency as a result of medical, psychological, pedagogical, and social evaluations. The diagnostic criteria are listed and described in the International Classification of Diseases and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V); (b) the students are enrolled in the Romanian educational system intended for students with disabilities; (c) follow the curriculum for students with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities as well as complex and integrated educational therapies and specific compensatory therapies (speech therapy, physical therapy, educational counseling). In the brief description of the characteristics of each participant, we used a pseudonym label.

George is a 15-year-old boy, enrolled in the 8th grade with support needs adjacent to a mild intellectual disability, he was directed to the school for students with special educational needs, after 6 years of following the general curriculum from the public boarding school. The major difficulties they face are in the development domain of language and verbal and written communication, where speech sound pronunciation disorders, dyslexia, and dysgraphia are severe. He presents difficulties in the lexical act, with poor abilities to understand a reading text. Arithmetic calculation skills are developed through the use of concrete support. Difficulties in the affective-emotional and behavioral domains are evident, with excessive shyness, anxiety, and the tendency to withdraw socially.

Mario is a 14-year-old boy, enrolled in the 8th grade with support needs resulting from his mild intellectual disability, he attends special middle school courses starting with the 4th grade, and enrolling in the school was one of the effects of the repeated school failures he had in primary school. Mario presents minor difficulties in oral and written language, both in terms of comprehension and expression, he performs arithmetical calculations with concrete support, and in solving problems he needs concrete intuitive support and model patterns, sometimes the processing and reasoning difficulties are major. He needs support in making choices, decision-making behavior, auto-management, and establishing and achieving objectives for pre-vocational activities.

Maria is a 15-year-old girl with support needs planning to recover from a moderate intellectual disability. She is in the 8th grade and was enrolled in the self-contained class; presents obvious difficulties in the field of oral and written language, both in terms of understanding and expression, and low performance in mathematical activities, arithmetic calculus, reasoning, and problem-solving skills which are developed on a low level. Maria gets involved in artistic-plastic activities and social activities and she enjoys the pre-vocational activities where she asks for support and guidance for completing the school tasks, choosing activities and tools, and setting and planning objectives and activities.

Mihai is a 14-year-old boy, enrolled in the 8th grade at the school mentioned above, his support needs are tailored to a mild intellectual disability. After 4 years of attending public school courses, he received the recommendation to follow special middle school courses. The difficulties encountered are in the areas of working with number concepts and arithmetic calculations, problem-solving activities, processing, and reasoning. Mihai demonstrates relatively good verbal and written communication skills, but difficulties in socio-school behaviors are evident, with difficulties in concentrating on a given school task, failure to complete school requirements, hyperactivity, attention deficits, and changes in affective mood, emotions, and adaptive socio-school behaviors. He needs support and guidance in choice-making and setting educational goals for many school activities.

Nicolae is a 14-year-old boy with a support needs plan to recover from a moderate intellectual disability. Nicolae is enrolled in the 8th grade in a self-contained class of the school for students with special educational needs since 5th grade. His academic progress was at a slower pace, with repeated failures in the public mainstream school, and low academic performances throughout his schooling. Major difficulties persist in the field of expressive and impressive language, great difficulties in understanding and verbal processing and reasoning, the concept of numbers was acquired slowly, and his dyscalculia is accentuated. From the point of view of socio-school behavior, Nicolae is obedient and submissive, with an adequate level of personal and social autonomy. He needs support in pre-vocational activities, where he asks to be guided when he makes choices, solves problems, sets goals, and in planning.

2.2 Setting

The research took place on the school campus, especially in the Speech-Language Therapy room, as well as in the classrooms of the participating students.

2.3 Independent variable

For a period of 7 months, the Self-Determination Model of Learning and Instruction was implemented during the learning and therapeutic educational activities to the selected 5 students, following the 3 phases of the program: Phase 1 - Set a Goal, Phase 2 - Take Action, and Phase 3 - Adjust Goal or Plan.

2.4 Dependent variables

In this research, five dependent variables were considered for measuring and estimating the performance of students on school tasks, and in a synthetic way, the behaviors related to dependent variables are operationalized and defined as follows:

2.4.1 Enhancing reading comprehension skills

The ability to read and comprehend a reading text is a prerequisite skill that allows people to be an equal part of life in the community or society. The lexical act presupposes the capacity for comprehension and verbal reasoning skills and to make causal inferences that will have the right to finalize a correct overall understanding of what has been read [29]. The ability to decode a single text and to integrate the signified message extracted from the text is difficult for students with mild and moderate mental disabilities, dyslexia and alexia are frequent disorders among this population [30]. Developing the abilities to understand and process and rationalize a reading text will increase the students’ chances of obtaining, first of all, better academic performance in the area of language and communication, and secondly, it will lead to the improvement of skills of understanding and adapting to the school context and social environment.

2.4.2 Increasing vocabulary communication abilities

Most students with intellectual disabilities show deficits in the volume of active vocabulary and disturbances in the level of expressive language. Communication is a complex process that involves the activation of cognitive, linguistic, and motor systems to allow us to interact with others, understand communication situations, and the manifestation of thoughts and emotions. These processes involve the optimal development of impressive and expressive language abilities, especially the acquisition and development of the student’s active vocabulary [31]. In the context of cognitive deficits specific to intellectual deficiencies, these mechanisms are activated at a slower pace and require the planning of speech therapy and specific educational interventions that lead to an increase in the volume of vocabulary and communication skills so as to ensure adequate linguistic means of communication with the others.

2.4.3 Improving math problem-solving competencies

Solving math problems is a challenging school task for most students with intellectual disabilities. The difficulties derive from the complexity of the problem-solving process, which requires interpreting and understanding the linguistic aspect of the problem’s requirement and finding the proper mathematical solution algorithm [32]. In the context given by mild and moderate intellectual disabilities, considering the difficulties of understanding and processing information from a linguistic point of view, such as weak reasoning abilities and operating with the concepts of numbers and quantities, and arithmetic operations, solving problems can become problematic in mathematics classes, and not only that. A procedural approach to problem-solving is required, and SDLMI, through its structure, offers very good opportunities to learn and consolidate arithmetic and problem-solving skills [4, 23].

2.4.4 Making choices in pre-vocational activities

The decision-making behavior of students with disabilities entails difficulties in the component of making choices in a quasi-constant manner, both within the actual school activities and in the pre-vocational activities carried out during the periods of planning and transition to independent adult life [33]. The researchers argued that the parents are the ones who replace the students in this behavior, and this aspect should be of concern because the ability to choices making of young people with disabilities is affected. In recent years, progress has been made on this behavior associated with self-determination, there are more and more situations where self-advocacy activities, such as IEP meetings making choices regarding their vocational and professional future are encouraged [2, 34]. Considered by researchers to be a skill associated with self-determination along with decision-taking and setting goals and planning, it has been proven that choice-making can be substantially improved following the completion of the SDLMI program during educational activities [35].

2.4.5 Goal setting and attainment skills

Goals setting and attainment are critical components of agentic action [36], an integral part of self-determination. Setting the objectives and achieving them is essential in the development and successful completion of any school task, or educational activity, the way in which the objectives are set will have effects on the school performance of the students. Moreover, students with disabilities manifest difficulties in this skill related to self-determination, in educational practice, students need support and guidance in setting objectives and planning activities to achieve the objectives. Built on the Causal agency theory of self-determination [10, 36], the implementation of the SDLMI program led to the optimization of setting and achieving goals and objectives skills, and several studies prove the effectiveness of this program in educational practice on this purpose [15, 18, 25].

2.5 Measures

To measure the skills and behaviors related to self-determination acquired pre- and post-the SDMLI intervention, we used the preliminary adapted version of the AIR Self-Determination scale for Romanian adolescents. Based on the self-determination learning theory, the AIR Self-Determination scale was developed by the American Institute of Research [37, 38] to assess and develop strategies for enhancing participants’ level of self-determination. The AIR self-determination scale, student version, the scale used in this research is a 30-items, 5- point Likert scale, comprising a Capacity for self-determination with three sub-dimensions Knowledge, Abilities, Perceptions, and Opportunities to learn and express self-determination. Individual observation checklists were used for each dependent variable to evaluate the competencies and indicators related to school performance in the baseline phase, more precisely, the behavior functional checklists to assess student’s performance for each school task proposed to be followed in this study: reading comprehension skills, vocabulary communication skills, math problem-solving competencies, choice making skills, and goal setting and attainment skills. In the intervention stage, to track the evolution of the 5 students, the same assessment instruments, as in the baseline stage, were used to monitor the rate of learning skills and behavior progress. Appendix A contains the academic task performance and functional behaviors checklists for the assessment of each dependent variable of the study.

2.6 Experimental design and condition

The experimental design was a multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the effects of the SDMLI program on the school task performance behaviors of the 5 students participating in the study. Experimental conditions included baseline, SDLMI instruction, and maintenance.

SDLMI was implemented in equal measure by the speech-language therapist, the special education teacher, the teacher-educator for complex and integrated therapies, and the educational psychologist. The team formed by these specialists worked with the five students participating in the study. In the Romanian special education system, usually, this is the team of teachers and specialists who, on a daily basis, provide constant basic educational and therapeutic services to students with special educational needs. The team made up of the three teachers specialized in special education mentioned above implemented SDLMI and worked with the 5 students on the school behaviors, school performance, and related skills proposed to be improved, from September 12, 2022, to March 10, 2023.

2.6.1 Baseline

In the middle of September 2022, when this study was initiated, in the baseline stage, the experimenter had preliminary conversations with the five participants about what they will learn during the intervention period with the SDMLI program. In the same stage, the five participants were administered the AIR Self-Determination scale to highlight the level of Capacities for self-determination, in terms of Knowledge, Skills, and Perceptions, as well as the perception of Opportunities. Functional behavioral checklists for the five behaviors and school skills proposed to be improved within the experiment were used with the aim of highlighting the current level of acquisition, specific to the pre-intervention stage. George and Mario were considered the first to enter the experimental intervention condition, being in the baseline for 3 sessions. Mihai, after 4 baseline sessions, started the experimental intervention activities. Maria and Nicolae entered the treatment condition after 6 baseline sessions.

2.6.2 Experimental intervention: SDMLI instruction

The experimental intervention consisted of the implementation of the SDMLI program, the independent variable of the experimental design, for each individual participant. The educational and therapeutic treatment took place in weekly sessions, the duration of each intervention being 45 minutes. The locations where the therapeutic and educational interventions took place were the classrooms and the speech therapy office on the school campus. The experimental educational intervention with SDMLI started differently for the five participants, depending on when they left the baseline stage of the educational experiment. The number of SDMLI instruction sessions varied between 13 and 20 sessions, the interventions within SDMLI being carried out in an individualized manner, in a 1:1 format.

Phase 1: “What is my goal?” In this phase, the intervention consisted of a series of structured interviews based on the following questions provided in the structure of the SDMLI program: What do I want to learn? What do I know about it now? What must change for me to learn what I do not know? What can I do to make it happen? The answers to these questions enable the students to specify the objectives and to become aware of the concept of optimizing performance on the school task through the lens of improving the five specified behaviors - increasing reading comprehension abilities, developing vocabulary skills, solving math problems, decision-making behavior skills and setting objectives in advocacy activities. Therefore, in this phase, George decided to focus on developing the skills to better analyze and understand the texts read, to increase performance in mathematics classes, and to propose and participate with his classmates in various social and vocational extracurricular activities. Mario decided to focus especially on working harder to improve his math grades, sign up for the book club, and build a plan to enter the technological high school. Maria wants to work extra time on additional math assignments, perfect her art skills by joining a club for young artists and plan her admission to a professional arts and crafts school. Mihai decided to enroll in the special math class to improve arithmetic skills, and in the library reading group to develop language, communication, and vocabulary skills and desirable social school behaviors. Nicolae has proposed to improve his school performance in all subjects, especially those in the fields of Romanian language and communication, as well as mathematics, by applying to the school’s support group, he also wants to develop an action plan together with his teachers to be admitted to vocational school. The interventions in Phase 1 took place over 2 sessions held individually with each participant.

Phase 2: “What is my plan?” In the second phase of the program, the participants developed action plans and strategies for self-monitoring the development of the planned actions to achieve the goals and objectives proposed in the previous phase. The action plans were a list of specific activities they performed every day to meet his goal. The participants answered four questions to develop their action plans: Where do I start? What is in my way? How can I get these things out of my way? When do I start? After developing the action plans for each proposed objective, the students chose strategies for self-monitoring the progress. All 5 students agreed to record their progress chronologically by creating portfolios in which the evidence and results of the activities and actions carried out will be uploaded weekly. After each intervention, the teachers noted in the functional behavioral checklists the evolution and performance of each student on a given school task out of the five proposed to be improved. To fully implement the experimental educational interventions from the second phase of the SDMLI, the action plans were different from one participant to another and depended on the moment the students entered this phase, as well as the evolution of the performances obtained. Thus, the number of educational intervention activities in the second phase was between 12 and 15 sessions.

Phase 3: “What have I learned?” After the second phase was completed, the study participants were taught to self-evaluate how they achieved the objectives proposed in the initial phase of the intervention. Students answered the following SDMLI integrated questions: What actions have I taken? What barriers to success have I removed? What has changed about what I do not know? Do I know what I want to know? The participants’ answers to these questions facilitate self-regulation by making them aware of the differences between the purpose and the proposed objectives and the outcomes, more precisely, the final performances obtained following the experimental intervention program. The teachers with the roles of experimenters, who accompanied the students throughout the development of this study, scheduled two sessions of structured interviews with the five participants in the study on the proposed objectives and the results obtained, as well as on the analysis and evaluation of the elements submitted in the personal portfolios. Also in this phase, the experimenters summarize the results obtained after completing the checklists and evaluated whether 80% of the proposed objects were achieved. The results obtained in this 3rd phase showed that the objectives were fulfilled, and the five participants ended the experimental intervention stage, which ensures their moving into the final experimental condition.

2.6.3 Maintenance

The maintenance period highlights whether the experimental intervention led to the expected effects, in other words, whether these effects are maintained in the absence of the experimental intervention, or in the absence of similar treatments or reward-type conditions that could influence the correctness of the results obtained. In this experimental stage, the training was interrupted, and no feedback or rewards were provided to the study participants. The maintenance period lasted from 2 to 4 sessions, depending on the participant, the experimenters continued to evaluate the behaviors and skills taught, but this time, in the absence of the SDMLI intervention.

2.7 Social validity

After the maintenance stage was completed, the researchers elaborated and conducted structured interviews and focus groups with the teachers from the school who work with the students involved in the study, as well as with their parents. The topic of the structured interviews and focus groups was based on the level of development and acquisition of behaviors and academic skills taught during the intervention with SDMLI, manifested in the generalization phase to school subjects and classes attended by the study participants.

3. Results

The results of the study were quantified from the data obtained in the three experimental stages. The number of interventions specific to the three stages differs from one participant to another. Table 1 depicts in a different individualized way the patterns of the development of the experimental stages for each participant in the study and their length. Cases are listed in increasing order of baseline, treatment with three levels, and maintenance phase length.

	Baseline sessions	Treatment 1 sessions	Treatment 2 sessions	Treatment 3 sessions	Maintenance sessions
George	3	2	13	2	4
Mario	3	2	13	2	4
Mihai	4	2	13	2	3
Maria	6	2	12	2	2
Nicolae	6	2	12	2	2

Table 1.

Patterns of development experimental stages.

Further, for an exhaustive understanding of how the students performed in each experimental condition, the results are presented individually, for each participant of the study.

George. Related to reading comprehension skills, George was observed in three sessions in the baseline phase, the scores obtained ranging from 10 to 20% (M = 16.66%). In the treatment phase with SDLMI applied in three treatment conditions - T1, T2, and T3 - the performances obtained in the 17 sessions were distributed in the range of 20 to 60% (M = 33.52%). In the maintenance phase, without SDLMI intervention, the scores obtained in the 4 sessions remained around 60% (57.50%). Regarding the dependent variable of vocabulary communication skills, in the base phase, George obtained quasi-constant scores ranging from 20 to 30% (M = 26.66%), then he entered the experimental conditions, and during the SDLMI treatment he obtained scores that increased slightly up to 60%, the average for the intervention period being M = 44.70%. In the maintenance phase, George was continuously observed and his performance for vocabulary communication skills was measured in the absence of interventions with SDMLI or the offering of reward-type behaviors, the results showing the maintenance of scores at an average of 50%. To explore how math problem-solving competencies were improved, George was in baseline condition for three sessions, his performance increased rapidly up to around 40%. In the treatment phase with SDLMI, the performance scores obtained in math activities ranged from 30–90% (M = 54.64%). In the maintenance phase, during the four sessions, the results were maintained at a high level between 80–90% (M = 87.50%). Related to the dependent variable of choice-making, George entered the baseline stage with scores estimated around 38% (M = 40%). In the intervention phase with the SDLMI program, George’s competencies regarding choice-making skills recorded values between 30% and 90%, M = 51.1%. In the maintenance phase, in the absence of SDLMI implementation, the choice-making skills were between 70 to 80%, and M = 75%. With regard to goal setting and attainment (GAS), the sessions in the base stage recorded scores ranging from 20–40%, with the mean, M = 30%. During the three experimental conditions of the treatment stage, the scores increased significantly, the values being between 30 and 80%, with the mean, M = 55.29%. In the maintenance phase, the specific GAS performances were maintained at a high level, the scores were in the range of 60 to 80%, with the mean, M = 72.5%.

Mario. To examine the evolution of the way in which reading comprehension skills were structured and built, Mario also entered the baseline stage with performances estimated at 30%, in the intervention stage with SDLMI, reading skills were increased rapidly and constantly to an advanced level reaching 80%, the scores from the treatment stage with mean, M = 57.64%. In the absence of stimulation with SDLMI, specific to the maintenance stage, school performances regarding reading comprehension skills remained constant around the values between 70–80%, with the mean, M = 77.50%. The investigation of vocabulary communication skills involved three sessions in the base phase, the scores increased from 20–40%, Mario entered the SDLMI treatment condition with this score (of 40%). In the intervention phase, in the 17 sessions delimited in three experimental conditions, Mario obtained performances that demonstrate progress, with increases from 40–90%, with the mean, M = 70%. These performances remained stable at around 80%, and in the maintenance phase, the scores had the mean, M = 77.50%. Related to the skills of solving math problems, Mario obtained low scores in the base phase of the experiment, the values measured in the base phase being between 10 and 20%, with the mean, M = 16.66%. In the experimental phase, the scores increased rapidly, remaining stable throughout the duration of the SDLMI intervention condition, the scores being estimated between 20–70%, with the mean, M = 44.70%. The high scores obtained as a result of the treatment remained relatively constant and in the absence of stimulation with SDLMI, the performances in the maintenance phase were predominantly set at a value of 60%. Regarding choice-making skills, Mario entered the base condition with scores in an upward trend, the values being between 20 and 40%. During the sessions of the experimental phase, the obtained performances increased to higher levels, the values being distributed in the range of 30–80%, with the mean, M = 57.64%. The GAS skills and behaviors remained stable during the maintenance period, M = 67.50%. Related to the GAS, Mario performed at constant levels in the base phase of the experiment, M = 36.66%, the high scores remaining constant in the intervention phase with SDLMI, the scores as the application of the treatment being distributed between 40–80%, with mean, M = 58.82%. In the maintenance phase, scores fluctuated closely between 60–80%, with the mean, M = 70%.

Mihai entered the initial experimental condition of the base phase with high scores for Reading comprehension skills, in the four sessions of the base phase the average of the scores obtained was M = 35%. In the intervention stage with SDLMI, Mihai’s scores increased in a successive and stable manner. During the three experimental conditions in which he received treatment, the scores were distributed between 40 and 80%, with the mean, M = 61.17%. The trend of increasing scores established in the intervention phase continued and was maintained even in the absence of the SDLMI program, in the maintenance phase, the average score for the established performances was 76.66%. The examination of the dependent variable vocabulary communication skills in the base phase was achieved by obtaining high performances in the four sessions, the scores obtained were distributed in the value range of 40–50%, with a high frequency of scores of 50%. In the three experimental conditions with SDLMI treatment, the scores increased progressively and robustly, with the mean, M = 62.94%. In the last experimental stage, the maintenance, Mihai’s vocabulary communication skills stabilized, with the average scores recorded in this stage, M = 86.66%. Regarding Mihai’s math problem-solving abilities, he proved a fairly high level of performance in the base phase of the experiment, with the mean for the scores obtained in the 4 sessions in the base phase being, M = 27.5%. In the three experimental conditions with SDLMI treatment, T1, T2, and T3, the scores were constantly increasing from one phase to another, the values obtained by Mihai in the 17 sessions being in the range of 40–70%, with mean, M = 57.64%. In the three sessions of the maintenance stage, the values stabilized constantly at 70%. The results obtained as a result of measuring the abilities to make choices proved that in the base stage, these scores increased slightly from 30–50% (M = 42.50%), and in the phases T1, T2, and T3, they maintain a high threshold, with the mean, M = 68.82%. In the maintenance phase, the performances in terms of choice-making behaviors and capacities were at higher value levels, their average being M = 76.66%. A similar pattern was with the measurements of the dependent variable GAS, in the initial phase of the experiment Mihai obtained average scores in the 4 sessions, M = 32.50%. In the treatment conditions T1, T2, and T3, the scores improved obviously, registering a robust increase, the values being between 40 and 80%, M = 63.52%. In the maintenance phase, the specific GAS skills were kept constant at 80% in the last three sessions of the experimental condition. Figure 1 shows the performance at 10 percent intervals of George, Mario, and Mihai on school tasks included in the three experimental stages, for the 5 dependent variables investigated: Reading comprehension skills, Vocabulary communication skills, Math problem solving, Choice making abilities, and Goal setting and attainment.

Figure 1.

The evolution of the performance measurements expressed in percentages for George, Mario, and Mihai.

Maria had a more difficult start in the experimental condition of the baseline phase, her Reading Comprehension skills entered an upward trend from the 3rd session out of 6, the scores falling in the range of 10–30%, with the mean, M = 21.66%. In the phases T1, T2, and T3 of intervention with SDLMI, the scores increased from one experimental condition to another, more precisely from 30–80%, M = 56.66%. In the maintenance phase, without SDLMI and without rewards or feedback, the scores increased to values similar to those in the intervention stage, in the three sessions, the values being from 50–60%, average M = 56.66%. Similar behavior was recorded for Vocabulary communication skills, in the 6 sessions of the baseline phase, the data were distributed in the range of 5–10%, with a mean of M = 7.5%. In phases T1, T2, and T3, under the influence of SDLMI, the scores stabilized at higher values between 20 and 60%, with the mean, M = 37.33%. In the three sessions of the maintenance phase, Maria developed Vocabulary communication skills at higher levels than those in the intervention stage, these scores being between 40 and 50%, with a mean of M = 43.33%. Regarding the skills to solve math problems, Maria encountered difficulties in the first 4 out of 6 sessions of the baseline, the scores in this phase being reported at values from 7–10% (M = 8.50%). Then, in the intervention phase, the results showed a significant increase from 12–50%, with a mean of M = 29.26%. The scores stabilized in the maintenance phase at higher levels between 30 and 40% (M = 36.66%). Maria proved better choice-making skills and behaviors, the performances obtained in the 6 baseline sessions with scores between 10 and 20% (M = 15%). In the intervention phase with SDLMI, the choice-making behaviors were obviously improved, with the scores ranging between 20–60% with a mean of M = 39.33%. In the maintenance phase, the performances obtained as a result of the intervention were stabilized at similar levels as in the intervention phase, in the range of 40–50%, with an average of M = 43.33%. Maria’s goal-setting and attainment skills were rated with low scores in the baseline phase, being between 5 and 20%, M = 11.66%. In the intervention phases T1, T2, and T3, the results obtained were between 10 and 60%, M = 32.66%. The performances obtained in the intervention phases remained constant in the maintenance phase, the reported scores being between 30 and 40%, with a mean of M = 33.33%.

Nicolae. Measurements of Reading Comprehension abilities showed a difficult debut in the baseline phase, the performances being related to scores between 5 and 10%. (M = 8.33%). Nicolae reacted very well to the SDLMI intervention, with the scores from the experimental conditions T1, T2, and T3 ranging from 10–40%, M = 22.50%. In the two sessions of the maintenance phase, performances were maintained at values of 30 and 40%, M = 35%. Nicolae’s Vocabulary communication skills measured in the 6 baseline sessions indicated low values ranging from 7–10%, M = 8.33%. In the experimental conditions T1, T2, and T3, the performances obtained under the influence of SDLMI were increased to levels between 15 and 50%, with the mean M = 27.81%. During the maintenance period, the scores indicated values from 40–50%, M = 45%. Nicolae’s Math problem-solving skills recorded low values in the baseline phase, the values being between 5 and 10%, M = 7.50%. In the experimental treatment conditions T1, T2, and T3 with SDMLI, Nicolae’s Math problem-solving performance increased significantly, the scores obtained ranging from 20–40%, M = 32.50%, these values remaining stable even in the maintenance phase with values of 30%. Regarding the Choice-making abilities, Nicolae entered the baseline phase obtaining relatively adequate performances in the 6 sessions, the values being distributed between 10 and 15%, M = 12.50%. In the educational intervention phase with SDLMI, during the three conditions T1, T2, and T3, the abilities to make choices were in constant progression, with scores ranging from 15–60%, with the mean M = 35.31%. In the maintenance phase, performance on the tasks of making choices remained within the same limits between 40 and 50%. Nicolae’s goal-setting and attainment skills measured in the initial phase from the baseline indicated relatively high scores, these being between 10 and 15%, M = 11.66%. In the experimental intervention phase, the task performances of setting and achieving goals were improved. The scores indicated, in the three experimental conditions, significantly increased from 15–40%, with the mean M = 24.06%. In the maintenance phase, the behaviors and skills learned during the intervention remained stable at a high level even in the absence of SDMLI implementation, the scores being between 30 and 40%. Figure 2 graphically illustrates the performances at 10 percent intervals of Maria in academic activities carried out in the three experimental stages, for the 5 dependent variables examined: Reading comprehension skills, Vocabulary communication skills, Math problem-solving, Choice making abilities, and Goal setting and attainment.

Figure 2.

The evolution of the performance measurements expressed in percentages for Maria.

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore the ways in which SDLMI affects the academic performance of the five participating students, operationalized in five specific behaviors and skills: reading comprehension skills, vocabulary communication skills, improving math problem-solving, making choices in pre-vocational activities and goal setting and attainment. The interpretation of the study results is carried out by referring to the two research questions.

4.1 Did the application of SDLMI increase the performance in school tasks and academic activities of the five students involved in the study?

The results of the study indicated that SDLMI has a beneficial impact on students’ school task performance, the effects of the application of the SDLMI program were manifested by obvious improvements and increases in the scores of the investigated academic behaviors and competencies.

4.2 Reading comprehension

Regarding this competence of decoding and understanding the reading of texts, the results of the study clearly indicated that the implementation of SDMLI has the effect of positive changes in the ability to understand the reading of texts of medium difficulty. Thus, George and Maria recorded a moderate increase in scores in the T2 and T3 stages of the intervention stage, which were then maintained not only in the experimental maintenance condition but also in different educational contexts. Mario registered a significant increase during the intervention period, maintained in Romanian Language and Literature classes as well as in similar study subjects. Mihai stood out throughout the experiment by obtaining the best performances in this competence, his scores being socially validated by obvious academic results supported by very good school grades and prizes. Nicolae’s progress was at a slower pace, and although the results achieved materialized on lower scores, they were constant and stable and maintained and generalized. In the literature dedicated to self-determination, several studies have supported the major role that SDLMI plays in improving academic achievement, including reading comprehension and processing, and reasoning skills [8, 26, 39].

4.3 Vocabulary communication skills

The results of the study indicated that the procedural and cyclical application of SDMLI in controlled experimental contexts of learning and therapy determined for the five participants significant and stable increases in the volume of active and passive vocabulary and in the improvement of expressive and impressive language skills. Therefore, George had an upward trend in the baseline phase and the T1 and T2 treatment phases, and in the T3 and maintenance phases, he obtained scores with similar, constant, and stable values. Mario progressed at an accelerated pace after the baseline phase, and in the intervention phases their vocabulary skills increase from one experimental condition to another, and in the maintenance phase, they remain stable and robust. Mihai entered the initial experimental condition with relatively high scores that he maintained at a higher level throughout the intervention and the maintenance and generalization phase. Maria and Nicolae had relatively similar developments, the vocabulary, the impressive and expressive language skills, as well as those of understanding communication situations, were much improved, especially in the last phase of treatment and in maintenance and generalization. The results obtained in the present study are supported by similar studies that also highlighted the positive impact of SDLMI on vocabulary activation and oral communication skills in various communication situations [6, 8, 40].

4.4 Math problem-solving

Previous studies demonstrate the effectiveness of SDLMI application in training and strengthening general problem-solving behaviors in general, and, in particular, in improving math problem-solving skills [4, 5]. In the present study, through the implementation of SDLMI in school tasks aimed at improving mathematical skills, improvements were highlighted in terms of the linguistic processing of problem requirements, the structuring of problem-solving in procedural steps and solving algorithms, and reasoning and calculation skills arithmetic. In this framework, the performances obtained by George are emphasized, which are in a constant upward trend from the baseline phase to the maintenance and generalization phase. In a similar way, Mario obtained high scores, especially in the tasks aimed at the procedural approach and mathematical reasoning, Mihai stood out by consolidating the skills of operation with the concept of number and arithmetic calculation. Maria and Nicolae evolved at a slower pace, obtaining progress in the skills of operating with quantities, and numbers, and elementary arithmetic calculation with concrete support.

4.5 Choice-making

The ability and behavior to make choices are circumscribed to the category of skills associated with the self-determination construct. Through its structure, SDLMI promotes the development of decision-making behavior, and knowing how to make choices is a vital element of this type of behavior, especially in the context of intellectual disability [14, 15, 41]. The results of the study supported this paradigm through relevant findings for the participants: George, Mario, and Mihai obtained average, quasi-constant scores, with slight increases during treatment and then stabilized during maintenance. Maria and Nicolae evidently had increasing scores in the phase of experimental conditions, which were maintained and were generalized and socially validated in multiple educational contexts, such as the prevocational activities. In the Romanian educational system, the pre-vocational activities take place within the Counseling and school and professional guidance classes. In these particular pre-vocational activities, the students participating in the study stood out for their higher decision-making and choice-making skills related to a possible future profession, these results being another proof of the effectiveness of the SDLMI program.

4.6 Goal setting and attainment

Study findings showed that the capacities for setting goals and objectives and planning activities to achieve them were improved. Thus, George and Mario had similar GAS behaviors in the treatment and maintenance conditions, obtaining moderate and stable scores over time, the difference was made by the baseline condition, where Mario entered with better performances than George. Mihai’s scores showed a significant evolution in treatment phases 2 and 3 which stabilized at high levels in maintenance and generalization, social validation showing marked improvements on the GAS component. Maria and Nicolae acquired these skills at a slightly slower pace, the scores obtained in the treatment and maintenance conditions, although with lower values, remained stable and constant over time. The results of the study are reflected in the self-determination literature, several studies have indicated the beneficial impact of SDLMI on goal setting and attainment skills development, as essential behaviors of the self-determination construct [14, 19, 25, 26].

4.7 Did the SDLMI improve self-determining capacities in terms of knowledge, perceptions, and abilities?

The measurements made with the preliminary adapted AIR Self-determination scale for Romanian students at the beginning of the baseline phase and at the end of the maintenance phase indicated, for each participant, obvious increases in the scores for Capacities, more precisely those of Knowledge, Abilities, and Perception. These finds results supported that the application of SDLMI also leads to the improvement of students’ capacities for self-determination.

5. Limitations

This study has several limitations, the first one refers to the uniformity regarding the disability label of the study participants, these fall under the incidence of mild and moderate intellectual disabilities. The study would have gained more value if the study participants included students with developmental disorders, autism spectrum disorders, or sensory or neuromotor disorders. The second limitation is related to the number of dependent variables measured, the identification and introduction into the study of other dependent variables related to school performance would have been beneficial. The third limitation refers to the monitoring, in the generalization stage, of the behaviors and skills developed under the influence of SDLMI and observing them in different educational settings registering difficulties at times.

5.1 Implications for future research and practice

The present study is a novelty in Romanian research on self-determination in the context of disabilities, being the first study that measures the effects of the SDLMI program on the school performance of five students with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities. The obtained results can become a starting point for research that examines the impact of educational programs that promote self-determination on the development and evolution of students with different disabilities. Further in-depth studies could be developed on the exploration of the effects of specific educational strategies aimed at optimizing the components of self-determination, as well as skills associated with self-determination such as self-advocacy and self-management that have an essential role in preparing students with disabilities for independent adult life. Regarding the implications for therapeutic and educational practice, the results of the present study that proved the effectiveness of SDLMI in improving the school performance of students, and considering the status of evidence-based practice of this program could lead to the expansion and the implementation of this program as much as possible many learning situations in Romanian schools.

In conclusion, the current study was intended to explore the impact of the Self-Determination Learning Model of Instruction in improving school task performance behaviors in five students with mild and moderate intellectual disabilities, being one of the first studies developed in Romanian research on self-determination and disabilities. The results of the study are encouraging in the sense of launching new research directions as well as opening up the implementation in Romanian schools of programs aimed to develop self-determined behaviors and skills in students with and without disabilities.

Appendix: individual observation checklists

See Tables A1–A5.

Indicators and assessment criteria	Knowledge and/or skills mastered	Learning is in progress	Need support to finish an academic task	Absence of knowledge or skill
1. Makes letter-sound associations.
2. Identify letters and differentiate between them.
3. He/she can synthesize letters into syllables.
4. Make meaningful words with given syllables.
5. Put the series of words in logical sequences forming sentences and phrases.
6. Read words and associate them with corresponding pictures or images.
7. Read sentences and phrases and associate them with corresponding action images.
8. Read a short text and extract the main ideas and keywords.
9. Complete the blank sentences with words and ideas extracted from a previously read text.
10. Narrate in your own words a book or a more extended read text.

Table A1.

Academic task performance and functional behaviors checklist—reading comprehension skills.

Indicators and assessment criteria	Knowledge and/or skills mastered	Learning is in Progress	Need Support to finish an academic task	Absence of knowledge or skill
1. Define categories and place the words into given categories.
2. Identify words with the opposite meaning and use them in appropriate communication frameworks.
3. Differentiate between optically similar words and define them correctly.
4. Operationalize and find more meanings and definitions for the same word.
5. Use words correctly in different situations and communication frameworks.
6. Integrate and match words in a text by completing the sentences and phrases.
7. Identify and associate words with similar meanings.
8. Associates words with corresponding images forming logical sentences and phrases on a given communication topic.
9. Uses words and language correctly and appropriately for the communication context.
10. Use elements of verbal reasoning.

Table A2.

Academic task performance and functional behaviors checklist—vocabulary communication skills.

Indicators and assessment criteria	Knowledge and/or Skills mastered	Learning is in progress	Need Support to finish an academic task	Absence of knowledge or skill
1. Makes number-quantity associations and correspondences.
2. He or she can operate with numbers, sequences, and series of numbers.
3. He or she can perform simple and complex arithmetic operations with and without concrete support.
4. Identify the order of operations in solving an arithmetic exercise.
5. He or she can understand the request, from the linguistic point of view of the problem.
6. Breaks a complex problematic situation into simple tasks.
7. Identify the steps and algorithm for solving the problem.
8. Develops a plan for the resolution operations that he or she implements.
9. Check the result obtained and revise the way of using mathematical reasoning strategies.
10. The identified solutions are generalized and extended in practical or real-life situations.

Table A3.

Academic task performance and functional behaviors checklist—math problem-solving competencies.

Indicators and assessment criteria	Knowledge and/or skills mastered	Learning is in progress	Need support to finish an academic task	Absence of knowledge or skill
1. He or she expresses his interest in certain vocational activities.
2. Participate in the activities proposed by choosing from several given options.
3. Show interest in one or more future vocational options.
4. After choosing an activity from several possible ones, he gets involved and actively participates in the chosen activity.
5. He or she chooses to get involved independently in vocational activities.
6. In daily academic activity, choices are constantly linked to interests, preferences, and vocational wishes.
7. In activities, he or she supports the choices made with arguments.
8. In the proposed activities, they look for opportunities to make the best vocational choices.
9. He or she has already made a choice about his future job.
10. He or she started to build plans related to his vocational choice.

Table A4.

Academic task performance and functional behaviors checklist—making choices in pre-vocational activities.

Indicators and assessment criteria	Knowledge and/or skills mastered	Learning is in progress	Need support to finish an academic task	Absence of knowledge or skills
1. In the school activities, with support, identify the learning objectives.
2. In learning activities, he sets independently his own goals.
3. The objectives of the learning activities chosen individually are by the theme proposed for learning.
4. Setting the objectives for an activity is followed by a planning of strategies and next work steps.
5. Plan appropriate activities to achieve the objectives.
6. He or she follows a rigorously established algorithm in which they carry out activities to achieve the set objectives.
7. Consider resources and opportunities in the attainment of learning objectives.
8. He or she prioritizes the learning objectives and the activities to achieve them according to their relevance at a given moment.
9. When the proposed objectives are not achieved, review the planning and activities carried out.
10. Proves perseverance in achieving the proposed goals and sets appropriate activities for attainment.

Table A5.

Academic task performance and functional behaviors checklist—goal setting and attainment skills.