One Health Approach to Rabbit Farming: Balancing Act between Environmental Impact, Farmers Livelihood, and Animal Welfare

Abstract

The growing consumer demand for sustainable meat production can be met in a way that balances environmental effect, farmer livelihood, and animal welfare through rabbit farming. However, the different types of rabbit farming each present advantages, drawbacks, and challenges that extend to the environment, farmers, and the animals. Advantages include the facts that rabbits are prolific breeders and are highly efficient converters of feed into meat. Rabbit require less land, water, and feed compared to other livestock species. Greenhouse gas emission and waste production are relatively low, making rabbit farming a sustainable farming model. Despite being smaller than other livestock, rabbits still require adequate space for their well-being. Insufficient space can result in stress, health issues, and decreased productivity. The welfare of rabbits is a critical aspect. In addition to being legally and morally required, upholding high welfare standards and ensuring humane treatment improves the quality of output. Overpopulation and ethical considerations should be carefully managed to ensure responsible and sustainable rabbit farming practices. Ultimately, rabbit farming can serve as a feasible remedy for the challenges that are faced in achieving sustainable meat production, provided that it is meticulously managed to maintain a harmonious equilibrium between environmental preservation, economic viability, and animal welfare.

1. Introduction

Rabbit farming stands at the crossroads of agricultural sustainability, animal welfare, and environmental stewardship. As a cornerstone of small-scale livestock farming and an emerging component of commercial agricultural ventures, rabbit farming offers a delicate balance of benefits and challenges that impact not only farmers but also the environment and the welfare of the animals [1]. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) was initially farmed for its fur and later on for its meat [2]. The male rabbit is referred to as the buck, the females are does while the young rabbits are referred to as kits [3]. Rabbit farming is one of the fastest growing subsectors of meat production, particularly in developing countries [4]. Globally, rabbit meat production has grown from less than 200,000 tons per year in the early 1990s to over 1000,000 per year today [5, 6]. Furthermore, rabbit farming has been recognized as an important small-scale, family farming operation for both rural and urban communities [7]. This is particularly important for poverty-stricken areas in the developing world [8, 9, 10].

Rabbit farming, also known as cuniculture or rabbitry, refers to the practice of raising domestic rabbits for various purposes, including meat, fur, wool, and as pets. Today, rabbit farming encompasses a wide range of practices, from small-scale backyard operations to large commercial enterprises. Regardless of scale, successful rabbit farming requires careful attention to the animals’ needs, proper management practices, and a sound understanding of rabbit behavior and physiology.

Rabbits are highly prolific animals, with the ability to breed throughout the year and produce multiple litters annually [11]. Rabbits have a relatively short gestation period, usually lasting between 28 and 31 days, with an average duration of approximately 30 days. They also attain sexual maturity at an early stage, ranging from 4 to 6 months, contingent upon the breed and environmental circumstances. This reproductive efficiency makes them an attractive option for meat production as well as for those seeking to maintain a self-sustaining population [12]. In addition to their reproductive potential, rabbits are relatively easy to care for and require minimal space compared to other livestock species. They can be raised in a variety of environments, including simple wire cages, indoor hutches, outdoor cages, and free-range systems, depending on the specific goals of the operation, climate, management practices, and available resources. Proper nutrition is essential for maintaining the health of rabbits [13, 14, 15]. A balanced diet should include a combination of hay, fresh vegetables, and commercial rabbit pellets. Access to clean water is also critical. In terms of housing, rabbits require shelter that protects them from extreme heat, predators, and disease.

This chapter covers the broader framework of the one health approach in rabbit farming, aiming to elucidate the intricate interplay between humans, animals, and the environment, linked to each type of rabbit farming. From its historical roots to its contemporary significance, the diverse dimensions of rabbit farming systems are explored, shedding light on its implications for sustainable agriculture, animal welfare standards, and ecological conservation efforts. By critically examining the pros and cons inherent in rabbit farming systems, valuable insights are provided for farmers, policymakers, and stakeholders concerning ethical, environmental, and economic aspects of rabbit farming. We endeavor to foster a deeper understanding of the complexities surrounding the rabbit farming and inspire informed decision-making aimed at promoting the well-being of animals, farmers, and the environment alike.

2. The origin of rabbits

Evidence suggests that rabbits were first domesticated in the Mediterranean region (ancient Rome or Greece). Rabbits were primarily hunted for their meat and fur. Findings have indicated that domesticated rabbits are descended from the European rabbit, which can exist in both wild and domesticated forms [16, 17]. Domesticated rabbits originated in the Iberian Peninsula, where two subspecies—Oryctolagus cuniculus cuniculus and Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus—coexist. The former is found in the region’s northeast, while the latter is found in its southwest [18, 19]. The South of France is another potential hub of domestication, as human-mediated activities like migration are thought to have brought rabbits to this region [16]. During the Middle Ages, monks in monasteries played a significant role in the development of rabbit husbandry. They recognized the potential of rabbits as a sustainable source of meat due to their rapid reproductive rate. By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, rabbit production had become more widespread across Europe and North America. In the early twentieth century, rabbit production experienced a surge in popularity during times of war and food shortages. Rabbits were promoted as a valuable source of protein that could be raised in small spaces with minimal resources. Nowadays, rabbit production is practiced worldwide for various purposes, including meat, fur, wool, and as pets and laboratory animals. Rabbit dung is even sold as an organic fertilizer that is superior to other organic or inorganic fertilizers in vegetable production areas [20, 21, 22].

3. Economics of rabbit farming

Rabbit farming is a widespread agricultural activity across the globe, with diverse practices and purposes depending on cultural, economic, and environmental factors. The following is an overview of economics of rabbit farming across the world.

Annually, around 700 million rabbits are slaughtered worldwide, yielding approximately 1 million metric tons of rabbit meat. China leads the globe in the production of rabbit meat, accounting for more than 30% of the total.

Europe has a long history of rabbit production, with countries like France, Italy, and Spain being major producers. In these countries, rabbits are primarily raised for meat as there is a long tradition of rabbit consumption in local cuisine. Commercial rabbitries utilize modern breeding and management techniques to meet domestic and export demand for rabbit meat.

Italy was ranked as the world’s fifth-largest producer of rabbit meat in 2017, after China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Spain, and Egypt [5]. In terms of volume and significance, rabbit production is far behind that of beef, pig, and poultry in Italy, where it is the fourth largest meat production industry. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO] [5], Italy produces 46,533 tons of equivalent carcasses (TEC). The Italian National Institute of Statistics provide more accurate information, accounting for 28,675 TEC with almost 19 million rabbits harvested annually. Italy produces essentially all of its own rabbits, with limited amount of trade occurring primarily within the EU [14].

In the United States of America (USA) and Canada, commercial rabbitries supply meat to domestic markets and niche gourmet markets. Rabbit farming in North America often emphasizes sustainable practices and animal welfare standards. Rabbit meat consumption in the US is relatively low compared to other meats. In the US, 6–8 million rabbits are marketed by about 200,000 producers and 8–10 million pounds of rabbit meat are consumed there annually. Every year, around 600,000 rabbits are used by laboratories for testing new products and medical research. Approximately 10,000 tons of angora wool are traded each year on the global market [23]. Every year, over 600,000–650,000 rabbits are slaughtered in Canada. More than 99% of the live rabbits imported into the US are from Canada. The remaining percentage is imported from Germany. The United States imports a small quantity of rabbit meat from Canada, but the majority comes from China. Less than 25 gm of rabbit are consumed annually per person in Canada [24]. In comparison, the annual intake of rabbits in Europe is slightly over 8 kg per person.

Rabbit production in Asia varies widely across different countries. In China, rabbits are raised primarily for meat, fur, and traditional medicine [25]. China is the world’s largest producer of rabbit meat. Commercial rabbitries in China employ intensive production systems. China produced 690,000 tons of rabbit meat in 2010 (up from 406,000 tons in 2001), a growth rate of 70% [26]. In Japan, rabbits are popular as pets and are often bred for specific traits and coat colors. In other Southeast Asian countries, production levels vary depending on local demand and cultural preferences. Rabbit farming is typically initiated with the goal of enhancing the nutritional intake of impoverished village families [27]. Using rabbit for family meat consumption complies with the Low External Input for Sustainable Agriculture program (LEISA), which is generally sponsored by governments and advocated for micro- or small-scale agricultural activities, for example, UPGK (Family Nutrition Improvement Project) in 1982 in Indonesia [27] and Royal Project Foundation and Heifer Project International in 2002 in Thailand [28].

Rabbit production is gaining popularity in several African countries. Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa have seen an increase in commercial rabbitries and training programs aimed at promoting rabbit farming as a sustainable livelihood option. Africa’s production of rabbit meat increased at an average yearly rate of 3.87% from about 15 thousand ton in 1973 to 90 thousand tons in 2022 [29].

Rabbit production in Latin and South America is prevalent in Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, and Uruguay. Rabbits are raised for meat, fur, and as pets, with commercial rabbitries supplying both domestic and export markets. The FAO estimates that seven Latin American nations—Venezuela, Argentina, Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Brazil, and Ecuador—six of which were in South America, produced more than 1000 tons of rabbit meat apiece in 2008. According to estimates of exports, between 2000 and 2007, Argentina was the only nation in South America to export a sizable quantity of rabbit meat [30]. Interestingly, Chile was identified as a minor exporter along with Uruguay even though it was not included in FAO’s estimates as a producer of rabbit meat.

Although there is some commercial production for meat and fur in Australia and New Zealand, rabbits are primarily bred as pets, emphasizing breed purity, health, and temperament [31]. In Australia, the market for rabbit farming was projected to be worth 157 tons in 2003. Based on an average of 55 does each farm and 24 rabbits per doe, this translates to roughly 119,000–132,000 rabbits from 80 to 100 farms. According to estimates, the Colony of New South Wales (NSW) sells between 108,000 and 120,000 tons of rabbit meat annually, which equates to 4000–5000 breeding does [32].

The selling price of rabbit meat in Algeria ranges from 700 to 900 Algerian Dinar/kg (AD/kg), which is equivalent to 4.35–5.59 euro/kg (€/kg) [33]. One Euro is equal to 160.98 AD. The live rabbit is priced at a range of 300–400 AD/kg (equivalent to 1.86–2.48 €/kg). Findings also showed that the average price for a kilogram of the product was approximately 750 AD, with a purchase price range of 400–500 AD/kg [34]. Another researcher reports that the price of a live rabbit ranges from 360 to 400 AD/kg (2.70–3.00 €/kg) wholesale and from 500 to 550 AD/kg (3.75–4.12 €/kg) retail [35]. On the other hand, the price of a slaughtered rabbit varies from 650 to 800 AD/kg (4.87–6.00 €/kg). Research has revealed that the cost of 1 kg of rabbit meat is higher than that of white meat, such as poultry in 298 AD/kg (2.23€/kg) and turkey in 405 AD/kg (2.51 €/kg). However, it is still lower than the price of red meat, such as beef at 1251 AD/kg (7.77 €/kg) and sheep at 1486 AD/kg (9.23€/kg) [35]. The price of rabbit meat exhibits variation across different countries, often ranging between 4 and 8 €. One kilogram of rabbit meat, for instance, costs 8 € in Greece [36]. A recent study conducted in Vietnam by Thu [37] revealed that the price of rabbit meat sold to intermediaries has recently fluctuated between 2.3 and 2.75 USD/kg ($/kg) of live weight. However, when sold directly to consumers, the price has remained steady at roughly $7.00/kg of carcass weight. The cost of breeding rabbits has significantly increased and is contingent upon the caliber of the breed. The cost of live rabbit in Abidjan ranges from 3000 to 5000 CFA franc/kg (equivalent to 5.05–$8.42/kg) for Ivorian producers. Nevertheless, the cost of 1 kg of live rabbit is higher in Côte d’Ivoire compared to Senegal, ranging from 2500 to 3000 CFA francs/kg or approximately 4.21–$5.05/kg [38].

An approximate annual growth rate of 10% is anticipated for the rabbit industry. Instead of new producers entering the market, expansion to date has mostly come from increases in the average size of farms [39].

4. Antibiotic use in rabbit farming

Disease prevention and management are critical aspects of rabbit farming. Farmers implement biosecurity measures, vaccination protocols, and regular health monitoring to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and ensure the overall well-being of the rabbit herd. Veterinary care may be sought for routine health checks, treatment of illnesses, and management of reproductive issues [40]. Growing concerns about antibiotic use in rabbit farming stem from possible effects on food safety, animal health, and antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections in rabbits but careless or inappropriate use can have devastating effects. Antibiotic-resistant microorganisms can arise in rabbits because of antibiotic overuse or misuse. This can exacerbate the challenges in treating infections and present a significant risk to public health if antibiotic-resistant bacteria are spread to humans via food or direct contact [41]. The gut microbiota can be disrupted by antibiotics, causing an imbalance in the natural bacteria present in the rabbit’s gastrointestinal tracts. This imbalance can result in gastrointestinal problems, including diarrhea and dysbiosis [42]. This can have an impact on the rabbit’s general well-being and productivity.

Regulations that restrict the utilization of antibiotics in food-producing animals exist, including rabbits. Violating the prescribed dosage limits or administering antibiotics that are not authorized for rabbit production might result in legal consequences and penalties [43]. To address these concerns, it is imperative for rabbit farmers to implement ethical antibiotic usage methods. Antibiotics should be administered solely when essential and under the supervision of a veterinarian. It is important to adhere to the correct dose guidelines and withdrawal intervals as well as to enforce effective cleanliness and management protocols to mitigate disease risk and decrease reliance on antibiotics [44]. In addition, one should investigate alternate approaches to prevent and treat diseases, such as immunization, biosecurity protocols, and probiotics. Rabbit farmers should also maintain precise documentation of antibiotic usage and closely observe for indications of antibiotic resistance [45]. By advocating for the responsible utilization of antibiotics in the management of rabbits, we may contribute to the protection of animal well-being, the assurance of food safety, and the preservation of public health, all while maintaining the long-term viability of rabbit farming.

5. Different types of rabbit farming systems

Rabbit farming can be categorized into several types based on their scale, management practices, and objectives. The choice of production type by the farmer depends on factors such as available resources, market demand, regulatory considerations, and producer goals and preferences.

5.1 Backyard or small-scale farming

Typically, this is operated by individuals or families on a small scale, often as a hobby or supplemental income. The primary purpose is for personal consumption, local markets, or as pets. Small-scale, family-run rabbit keeping is known as backyard rabbitry. These are generally close to the house, in a custom-built rabbitry, and may be used to house a few does and a buck. Greens, weeds, and vegetable cooking scraps are fed to the rabbits. They may be maintained with relatively low input and low management intensity, with a focus on self-sufficiency and sustainability.

5.2 Semi-commercial farming

Semi-commercial farming describes those facilities that are larger than backyard operations but smaller than commercial enterprises. These systems are primarily for the purpose of personal consumption and modest income generation from selling rabbit meat at local markets. They are often run by small-scale farmers or homesteaders. In this type of farming, farmers employ a somewhat more advanced level of inputs compared to the extensive type. This includes the utilization of commercial pelletized feed. This supplementary feed serves to enhance rabbits’ productivity and, thus, improve sustainability. Ten to fifty breeding does may be housed in a purpose-built rabbitry. They may use a combination of wire cages, hutches, or simple buildings, depending on available resources and space. There is an increased management intensity compared to backyard farming, with a focus on optimizing productivity and efficiency.

5.3 Commercial farming

These are large-scale operations managed as businesses, often with specialized facilities, equipment, and staff. The enormous industrial rabbitry facilities are mostly found in America and Europe. In addition to providing meat, they are also helpful in the distribution of breeding stock, the study of certain issues related to rabbit husbandry in warm climates, and the instruction of local farmers in better rabbit husbandry practices. This system utilizes purpose-built facilities such as climate-controlled barns, automated feeding and watering systems, and waste management systems. These operations require a high level of management expertise and investment, with a focus on maximizing production efficiency, quality, and profitability.

5.4 Integrated production farming

Integrated production farming integrates rabbit farming with other agricultural activities such as crop farming, poultry, or livestock production. This provides high-quality animal protein in a sustainable and effective way. Plant food wastes can be fed to rabbits directly. Wastes from fish (e.g., tilapia farming) and rabbits can be recycled and processed in aquaculture-based systems to create nutrients for crop and algal growth [46]. This will result in diversification of income streams, optimization of resource use, and enhancement of overall farm productivity and sustainability. However, this requires coordination and planning to ensure compatibility and synergy between different components of the integrated system.

5.5 Specialized production farming

This type focuses on specific niche markets or products, such as heritage breeds, organic or free-range production, or value-added products. This includes consumers seeking premium-quality products, ethical production practices, or unique breeds or varieties. They always adhere to strict standards and certifications, with an emphasis on quality control, traceability, and compliance with regulatory requirements.

6. Environmental impact of rabbit farming

Rabbits require less land, water, and feed compared to other livestock species such as cattle, pigs, and chicken [47, 48]. This efficiency helps to minimize resource usage, waste production, and environmental footprint and impact. In a world where nonrenewable resources are diminishing and the environment is at risk, rabbit farming is becoming a possible solution for meat production needs.

Rabbit farming is at the top of the list of efficient meat production. Rabbits can produce six pounds of meat on the same amount of feed and water that it takes a cow to produce just one pound [49, 50]. Replacement of soybean meal with alternative protein feeds (such as sunflower meal, peas, and rapeseed) would enable a rabbit farmer to make up for the lower slaughter yield and higher feed conversion [1].

Rabbit farming requires significantly less water compared to other livestock farming. This could be attributed to the fact that they are adapted to obtaining moisture from their diet, primarily from fresh greens and vegetables and this reduces their reliance on drinking water. With water scarcity becoming an increasingly pressing global issue, the efficient use of water resources in rabbit farming helps conserve this precious resource.

Rabbit farming produces low greenhouse gas emission compared to conventional livestock farming. Rabbits produce lower levels of methane and carbon dioxide. Therefore, rabbit meat has a smaller carbon footprint, contributing to climate change mitigation efforts [51].

Rabbit dung is an excellent organic fertilizer rich in micronutrients, minerals, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen [52]. It increases soil fertility, improves soil structure, and stimulates plant development. Feces from rabbits are small, dry pellets that are simple to gather and manage. They may be used as a top dressing by scattering them on the ground. Rabbit dung and urine are classified as cool fertilizers; there is no risk of plants burning when applying rabbit dung directly to plant material, unlike heated chicken or steer manure. However, it is extremely difficult to locate places in the European Union in which rabbit litter or manure may be disposed.

7. Ethical concerns and welfare aspects related to rabbit farming

Rabbit welfare issues in commercial farming are complex, involving various variables such as housing, nutrition, health, and handling procedures [53]. Rabbits are commonly confined in enclosures that might limit their instinctual activities like jumping, burrowing, and socializing, resulting in both physical and psychological strain. The presence of too many animals in these limited settings might intensify stress levels and heighten the likelihood of disease transmission. Malnutrition and absence of environmental stimulation further undermine their welfare, potentially resulting in undernourishment, monotony, and abnormal behaviors. In order to ensure ethical and sustainable practices, the bioindustry, which involves the large-scale commercial production and processing of rabbit products, needs to prioritize welfare considerations. Introducing housing conditions which offer more space and social and environmental enrichment will greatly improve their welfare. In addition, implementing methods that reduce stress during the handling and transportation of animals as well as providing timely and compassionate medical care are essential aspects of an approach focused on animal welfare.

Many people choose rabbits as an inexpensive way to provide a companion for a youngster but may fail to consider the significant expense of upkeep. In such instances, the well-being of the rabbit is compromised due to insufficient access to essential veterinarian care and substandard living conditions resulting from budgetary limitations. Given that an inappropriate habitat is frequently the root of welfare issues in rabbit care and husbandry, the recently increased knowledge of rabbit behavior and their specific ecological adaptations should help owners of companion rabbits to provide appropriate and “natural” surroundings for their animals. An “unsuitable” habitat typically refers to a setting that prevents rabbits from engaging in their natural behaviors or forces them to deal with situations that consistently induce fear, distress, or poor health. In developing countries like Nigeria, the demands of rabbits’ welfare have only lately come to the attention of scientists due to their lengthy history of neglect in the field of animal welfare study [54].

In Europe, there is a better understanding of the importance of animal welfare. In 2020, The European Food Safety Authority Panel on Animal Health and Welfare published a summary of the overall welfare effect score for each housing scheme in relation to different production system used in rabbit farming [55]. Conventional cages showed to have a great negative effect on the welfare score compared to the other types of housing.

8. Conclusion

With rabbit farming, an intricate interplay exists between environmental considerations, farmer livelihoods, and animal welfare. One health rabbit farming offers several advantages compared to other livestock farming, for example, rabbits are highly efficient converters of feed into protein, making them a sustainable source of meat for human consumption. Additionally, rabbit farming can be practiced on a small scale, making it accessible to smallholder farmers and rural communities. Moreover, rabbits produce relatively low levels of greenhouse gas emissions compared to other livestock, contributing to environmental sustainability.

However, there are also drawbacks associated with rabbit husbandry. Concerns over animal welfare, particularly in intensive types of rabbit farming, raise ethical considerations that must be addressed. Additionally, the use of antibiotics and other medications in rabbit farming can contribute to antimicrobial resistance and environmental pollution if not managed properly. This chapter emphasizes the importance of adopting sustainable practices in rabbit farming that prioritize animal welfare, environmental stewardship, and economic viability. Integrated production farming will mitigate the negative impacts of rabbit farming on the environment while maximizing its benefits. By carefully weighing the pros and cons and implementing responsible management practices, rabbit farming can continue to play a valuable role in global food security, rural development, and sustainable agriculture.