Managing Drill Cuttings Waste in Our Age

Abstract

Oil and gas drilling processes produce drill cutting wastes around the world. Drill cuttings are formed from the drill well bore to the earth’s surface and differ from a fine to pebble size rock. They carry with them petroleum hydrocarbons; water, and various drill mud. Drill cuttings have been treated with several methods over the years. The method include, thermal technology, solidification/stabilization, bio remediation and mechanochemical method. This chapter explains few techniques employed in drill cuttings treated waste, which may be convenient and affordable. This will heighten the need for bio-treating drill cuttings before disposal to ease the level of environmental pollution.

1. Introduction

Oil and gas operations create drill cutting wastes around the world [1]. Before now, these drill cuttings were usually dumped into water bodies or land without recourse to any form of treatment [2]. Drill cuttings refer to any material (solids) removed from a borehole while drilling petroleum wells. Drill cuttings are granular in nature, and constitute solid phase of the waste stream [3]. The chemical characteristics of the drill cuttings depend to a greater extent on the chemistry of the drilling fluid and mud additives used in the drilling process [4]. Drilling muds are liquids used in the drilling process, which comprises of water, oil or synthetic based. Drilling muds are essentially made of oil or water, ground rock and clays [5]. Studies has shown that synthetic muds are not breaking down naturally in sea water as quickly as expected and are most harmful because they contain large quantities of hydrocarbon. Drill cuttings are characterised by relatively high content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and heavy metals [6]. PAH has negative influence on animal and plant organisms. PAHs have been discussed in numerous research works as environmentally harmful because they are or can become carcinogenic or mutagenic [7, 8, 9, 10]. According to the international center for soils and contaminated sites [11]. PAHs are defined by their high durability in the environs, which allows them to store in the soil for numerous period and degrade with difficulty. Because of this, there is need to have these drill cuttings treated before disposal.

1.1 Treatment method of drill cutting

1.1.1 Thermal treatment technologies

Thermal technologies use high temperatures to reclaim or destroy contaminated material. They can be classified into two class (Figure 1) [12]. The first function by the use of incineration to destruct hydrocarbons by heating them to very higher temperatures (1200–1500°C) in the existence of air. Incineration is not normally used for drilling waste material but has greater relevance for materials like medical waste material and Convert them into less bulky materials that are non- hazardous or less hazardous prior to incineration [13]. The second group called thermal desorption uses a non- oxidizing process to vaporize volatile and semi-volatile through the application of heat. Of the various technologies involved in thermal desorption, thermal phase separation (TPS) is the most popular and consist of five subsystems [14]. The five subsystems are pre-treatment system; the anaerobic thermal desorption unit (ATDU), solid discharge and conditioned sub system, vapor recovery unit (VRU), and finally water treatment unit (WTU). Thermal desorption technologies rely on volatilization; treatment ratio is connected to the volatility of the toxins. Hence thermal desorption well removes Low Molecular Weight (LMW) hydrocarbons, aromatic and other volatile organics while High Molecular Weight (HMW) PAHs are less easily separated. Costs of thermal treatments are quite prohibitive [15], personnel and equipment is exposed to the resulting fugitive dusts.

Figure 1.

Drill cutting treatment methods.

1.1.2 Solidification/soldification

These involve the mechanical binding of the cuttings to form a solid block as a result of the chemical interaction between the cuttings, the solidifying and solidifying agents [7, 8, 9, 10]. These approaches are aimed at ensuring that residual oil and heavy metals in the pre- treated, mud coated cuttings are prevented from leaching to allow for their land application or their use as road construction materials. Al-Ansary and Al-Tabbaa [16] studied Stabilization/solidification of synthetic petroleum drill cuttings. They ascertained the leachability results and display the reduction of the synthetic drill cuttings to a stable non-reactive hazardous waste, defiant with the UK approval criteria for non-hazardous landfills. Boutammine et al. [17] uses stabilization/solidification (S/S) and combined with biological treatment on drill cuttings. The experimental solidification tests were analyzed. The results display at 28 days of curing show the UCS was importantly affected by additives. A similar exercise carried out in Southern Louisiana University indicated that cuttings stabilized in a silica matrix had a pH > 11 and did not support plant growth when land applied [18].

1.1.3 Mechanochemical (MC)

Mechano-chemical is a method projected since 1902. Presently is effectively exploited in different fields. It has also been recommended in the past for cleaning organic wastes material. Mechanochemistry explains the mechanical breakage of intramolecular bonds by external force, where contacts between micronized molecular solids are defined by the mechanical action for common motion. Mechano-chemical treatment allows chemically stable galactic organic unit to act at comparatively moderate operating conditions owing to mechanical energy transferred when grinding [19]. Processes includes; Grinding, milling, shearing, scratching, polishing, and rapid friction which provide the mechanical impact for mechanochemistry. The following are factors affecting the milling process [19]. These are; Soil composition and characteristics, Properties of the contaminant, Optimum milling duration and Ball to soil ratio. Mechanochemistry covers solid-state reactions by friction at lubrication of rapidly moving cold contacting surfaces, and single bond breaking or cutting [20] (See below) for brief description (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Processes involved in this treatment [20].

1.1.4 Bioremediation technology

It could be called bio-restoration, meaning giving nature a helping hand. Bioremediation can be characterized as any procedure that uses micro- organisms to decontaminants pollutant. To its original condition [21, 22, 23, 24]. Example are land farming, composting, bioreactors, bioventing, bio filters, bio-augmentation, bio stimulation, remediation by enhanced natural attenuation (RENA) [25].

• Bio stimulation- is the process of introducing additional nutrients in the form of organic and/or inorganic fertilizers into contaminated system. These requirements can gradually be satisfied by addition of nitrate, phosphate and sulphate containing salts.

• Bio venting- method of treating contaminated soils by drawing oxygen through the soil to stimulate microbial activities.

• Bio reactors: container or reactor may be used to treat liquids or slurries.

• Bio augmentation: involves bacterial cultures to a contaminated medium. It also involves the introduction of microorganisms (cultured) into a contaminated system. These practices take care of the events of the absence of competent naturally occurring microbes. Although some of these specialize microbes are naturally occurring; others can be synthesize in the laboratory [21, 22, 23, 24].

• Remediation by enhanced natural attenuation (RENA) - is an in situ strategy that involves the combined application of bio stimulation with inorganic fertilization and certain agro technical processes like tilling in windrow to decontaminate a polluted matrix. Bio-stimulation helps to increase the activities of indigenous heterotrophic bacteria (HTB) and hydrocarbon – utilizing bacteria (HUB) while tilling helps to improve aeration [21, 22, 23, 24].

• Composting is a involves aerobic conditions in a matric phase environment. It is a successful strategy for the successful recycling of organic wastes [21, 22, 23, 24]. Composting is an aerobic process consisting of aerating sludge mixed with co- compost such as saw dust and animal manure. Composting is increasing being the preferred methods of treatment of municipal sludge’s because the process produces marketable end products that can be used as a container and organic fertilizer.

Composting involves the addition of organic matter to promote the development of a wide range of microbes to breakdown complex contaminant under a good temperature, moisture and nutrient level [21, 22, 23, 24].

Once after initiating composting its proceeds in two phase namely; high rate phase and curing phase. During high rate phase, thermophilic temperature (50°C and above) are reached owning to increased microbial activity and heat generation by biodegradable component in the compost. The curing phase is a low temperature stage, which follows after the rapidly degradable components are utilized. After these stages, the material will stabilized and is ready for land application. Meanwhile, to maintain the thermophilic temperature range, periodic turning is necessary [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Composting is divided into four major micro biological stages which are; temperature, mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling and maturation. Composting had some viable advantages including relatively low capital and maintenance cost, simple design and operation, and some removal of oil pollution. Composting consist of three major types of feed; the material been degraded (industrial waste), amendment (easily degraded organics; nutrients and microbes) and bulking agents (such as wood chips, saws dust, rice hulls, farmyard manure used for moisture control). Bulking agent are materials of low density when with soils; reduce the soil bulk density, produce higher porosity, may produce higher oxygen which may form water stable aggregates [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. These alteration to a soil will gain aeration and microbial action. Too much moisture may impede thermophilic condition and too little moisture can seriously reduce reaction rate. As a result of these processes, nitro aromatic are converted into nontoxic end product such as mono and di – amino toluene and carbon-dioxide.

• Phytoremediation: uses plant and micro-organisms to make contaminant harmless [26]. Although, report by [27] states that phytoremediation involves the translocation and transpiration.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Laboratory analysis

The samples was air-dried and weighed. The ratio of samples to the solvent was 1:2. The required quantity of analytical grade hexane and dichloromethane. The dry/cold extraction was applied and gas chromatography machine used (Table 1).

Reactor	Compost
Control	Untreated drill-cuttings
SAMPLE A	Drill cuttings + top soil + (PD + SD) i.e. 4:1:1; 2000 g + 500 g + 500 g
SAMPLE B	Drill cuttings + top soil + SMS i.e. 4:1:1; 2000 g + 500 g + 500 g
SAMPLE C	Drill cuttings + top soil + (PD + SD) i.e. 4:1:2; 2000 g + 500 g + 1000 g
SAMPLE D	Drill cuttings + top soil + SMS i.e. 4:1:2; 2000 g + 500 g + 1000 g
SAMPLE E	Drill cuttings + top soil + (PD + SD) i.e. 4:1:4; 2000 g + 500 g + 2000 g
SAMPLE F	Drill cuttings + top soil + SMS i.e. 4:1:4; 2000 g + 500 g + 2000 g
SAMPLE G	Drill cuttings + top soil + (PD + SD) + SMS i.e. 4:1:1; 2000 g + 500 g + 500 g

Table 1.

Experimental layout.

PD – Poultry droppings, SD – Saw dust, SMS – Spent mushroom substrate.

2.2 Determine PAHs sources

PAH ratios determine PAH sources, clarify samples by locations, and estimate (Table 2) [30].

PAHs ratio	Values	Source	Reference
∑LMW/∑HMW	<1; >1	Pyrogenic/Anthropogenic; Petrogenic/natural	[28]
Ant/(ant + Phe)	<0.1; >0.1	Petrogenic/natural; Pyrogenic/Anthropogenic	[29]
BaA/(BaA + CHR)	<0.2; 0.35	Petrogenic/natural; Combustion	[30]

Table 2.

Diagnostic ratios used in this study with their typical values for particular processes.

2.3 Benzo[a]Pyrene equivalent (B[a]Peq) estimation

BaP equivalent concentration (BaPeq) evaluated the toxicities of PAHs in sampling sites. Therefore, the total PAH concentration is expressed as B[a]Peq to illustrate the toxic potency [31]. As proposed earlier by [31, 32], the B[a]Peq is the summation of the B[a]Peqi. It is the value for specific PAHs or individual PAH concentrations in the sample (cPAHi) multiplied by its toxic equivalency factor (TEFPAHi).

$$B\left[a\right]Peq=\sum \left(BaPeqi\right)=\sum \left(cPAHi\times TEFPAHi\right)or\sum BaPeq=\sum Ci\times TEFi$$E1

Where Ci is the concentration of individual PAHs, TEFi is the corresponding toxic equivalency factor (Table 3).

PAHs	Toxicity equivalent factor	Reference
Naphthalene	0.001	[32]
Phenanthrene	0.001
Anthracene	0.01
Acenaphthelene	0.001
Acenaphthylene	0.001
Flourene	0.001
Pyrene	0.001
Chrysene	0.01
Benzo[a]anthracene	0.1
Fluoranthane	0.001

Table 3.

Toxicity equivalent factor value of the individual PAHs.

2.4 Quantification and characterization of degradation

The biodegradation rates of PAHs were evaluated by comparing the reaction rate constants of the pseudo-first-order kinetics refereed to [9].

$$\log Co-Ct=\log Co-\left(\frac{K1}{2.303}\right)\ast t$$E2

Make K₁ the subject formula

$$K1={\frac{2.303}{t}}^{\ast }\left[\left(\log Co\right)-\left(\log Co-Ct\right)\right]$$E3

K - The apparent constant reaction rate of the pseudo-first-order (1/week), t- Time (weeks).

Then, the half-life of the respective PAHs:

T_1/2 = 0.693/K₁ (3).

Biodegradation efficiency (BDE):

$$BDE\left(\%\right)={\frac{Co-Ct}{Co}}^{\ast }100$$E4

Where C_o – initial concentration C_t – final concentration.

2.5 Statistical analysis

The data were presented as the mean of triplicates (n = 3) ± standard error. ANOVA or general linear model (GLM) tests in MINITAB 16.0 was identified as p ≤ 0.05.

3. Results

The ∑14PAHs reduced at a reasonable rate. Sample A at 4 weeks had ∑14PAHs to be 12747.4 mg/kg which reduced to 9107.9 mg/kg at about 28.6%. Sample B with 11195.5 mg/kg reduced to 3912.0 mg/kg at 65.1% while Sample C had 11646.5 mg/kg which reduced to 6296.8 mg/kg at about 45.9%. And Sample D reduced from 10897.2 to 4704.5 mg/kg at 56.8% while Sample E had a 50.2% with a value of 6113.0 to 3041.7 mg/kg after 4 and 8 weeks. Sample F & G reduced at 53.6 & 48.3% respectively. The concentration reduced from 4266.4 to 1978.7 mg/kg and 7543.2 to 3898.6 mg/kg in sample F & G respectively. For Bio degradation Efficiency (BDE), the % ranges from 11.1–86.0% in Sample A, Sample B had 15.6–90.6% while Sample C had 18.5–95.8%. Yet, 27.5–81.9% were observed for sample D and 27.9–90.7% in sample E. Additionally, Sample F (25.4–82.2%) while sample G (8.5–89.6%) respectively. For the individual PAHs, B[a]Ant had the lowest BDE in Sample A & D while PHE had the lowest BDE in Sample C and F. The PAHs Indeno [1, 2, 3] ANT, Indeno [1,2,3-cd]PY and FLUROANT were the lowest BDE in sample B, E and G respectively. The highest BDE values were observed for B[b]FLOURANT in Sample C and E while Sample A,B,D,F & G show CHRY, B[A]PY, FLUORNAT, DIBENZ[A,H]ANT & INDENO[1,2,3]ANT with the highest BDE respectively. The PAHs in this study were group on ring bases. Where NAP (∑2 ring), ACE, ACY, FLUORENE, PHE & ANT as ∑3 rings. FLUORANT, B[A]ANT & CHRYS were ∑4 rings and B[b]fluornt, B[A]PY, INDENO(1,2,3)ANT, DIBENZ(a,h)ANT as ∑5 rings. In Addition, INDENO [1,2,3-cd] PYR is ∑6 ring. The rings were 2,3,4, 5 and 6 rings respectively. As seen, at 4 weeks ring ∑2 (0.16%), ∑3 ring (29.60%), ∑4 ring (30.63%), ∑5 ring (16.62%) and ∑6 ring (22.99%). Further at 8 weeks we have % of the rings to be ∑2 rings (0.16%), ∑3 rings (32.19%), ∑ 4 rings (34.10%), ∑5 rings (11.10%) and ∑6 rings (22.44%). Pearson correlation at 4 and 8 weeks show a value of 0.847 and there was a highly significant different with the amendment at 8 weeks as p < 0.05 (Figure 3; Tables 4–6).

Figure 3.

Show an evenly distribution of the PAHs values after normality test at 4 and 8 weeks transformed with log 10.

4 Weeks (%)
COMPOST	2	3	4	5	6
1	0.39	48.82	38.43	5.11	7.25
2	0.02	33.39	28.69	12.28	25.62
3	0.27	30.02	40.64	20.41	8.66
4	0.10	25.24	27.36	15.07	32.22
5	0.13	21.17	25.86	22.00	30.83
6	0.12	21.12	19.67	25.93	33.17
8 Weeks (%)
1	0.48	56.65	34.21	4.42	4.23
2	0.03	34.01	44.40	11.17	10.39
3	0.35	37.21	38.19	12.19	12.06
4	0.07	27.34	33.44	11.05	28.09
5	0.08	18.04	25.72	11.49	44.67
6	0.07	24.26	21.00	18.04	36.64

Table 4.

Rings % distribution on and after bio-remediation.

Variable	PC1	PC2	PC3	PC4	PC5	PC6	PC7
1	0.336	−0.821	0.329	−0.134	0.057	0.090	0.273
2	0.392	0.096	0.499	−0.045	−0.117	−0.318	−0.687
3	0.380	−0.202	−0.468	0.709	−0.100	−0.286	−0.048
4	0.392	0.040	−0.295	−0.091	0.435	0.658	−0.357
5	0.385	0.270	−0.087	−0.288	0.557	−0.503	0.351
6	0.374	0.441	0.437	0.359	−0.179	0.350	0.437
7	0.383	0.078	−0.373	−0.508	−0.664	0.021	0.095
Eigenvalue	6.2178	0.4170	0.1308	0.1072	0.0882	0.0277	0.0114
Proportion	0.888	0.060	0.019	0.015	0.013	0.004	0.002
Cumulative	0.888	0.948	0.967	0.982	0.994	0.998	1.000

Table 5.

Eigen-analysis of the correlation matrix (4 weeks).

Variable	PC1	PC2	PC3	PC4	PC5	PC6	PC
1	0.330	−0.814	−0.242	−0.129	0.058	0.340	0.184
2	0.396	0.010	−0.121	0.319	−0.736	−0.341	0.261
3	0.387	−0.047	−0.034	0.698	0.385	−0.067	−0.455
4	0.387	0.065	0.632	−0.028	0.352	−0.138	0.550
5	0.383	0.434	0.070	−0.041	−0.206	0.781	−0.077
6	0.369	0.360	−0.661	−0.316	0.341	−0.232	0.164
7	0.390	−0.108	0.290	−0.541	−0.153	−0.284	−0.596
Eigenvalue	5.8522	0.5088	0.2354	0.2092	0.0835	0.0639	0.0470
Proportion	0.836	0.073	0.034	0.030	0.012	0.009	0.007
Cumulative	0.836	0.909	0.942	0.972	0.984	0.993	1.000

Table 6.

Eigen-analysis of the correlation matrix (8 weeks).

To further investigate possible sources of PAH pollution, Principal Component Analysis was performed using the correlation matrix of the log-transformed PAH levels. One principal components PC1 with eigenvalue >1 were extracted and explained 88.8% (High loading variables are presented). PC1 was characterized by high loadings of PAHs with 2–3 ring, 4 ring, and 5–6 ring. The 14 PAHs had high loading where the variable depict the seven amendments. Thus, PC1 had a proportion of 88.8% of the total variance and reflected the contribution of anthropogenic to the origin of PAHs at 4 weeks. At 8 weeks, Eigenvalue was 5.8522 greater than 1 hence only PC1 was described by high loading of PAHs with a proportion of 83.6% of the total variance and reflected the contribution of anthropogenic activities to the origin of PAHs. The PCA results, in combination with diagnostic ratios, suggested that anthropogenic sources were probably the main sources. PAH ratios were calculated to determine PAH sources. The calculated ratios were ∑LMW/∑HMW, Ant/ (Ant+ Phe), and BaA/ (BaA + Chry). Their values were < 1, >0.1, and > 0.35 respectively. Sample A toxicity values reduced from 281.8 to 191.5 of 32.0% while Sample B, C, D, E, F & G toxicity potency values were 86.0, 69.2, 56.9, 57.8, 50.3 and 82.2%. In Addition, Sample B, C, D, E, F and G values were reduced from 679.4 to 94.5 Ba mgPeq kg, 543.0 to 197.2, 316.9 to 136.6, 304.1 to 128.2, 467.0 to 232.2 and 532.4 to 94.9 respectively. The samples had the following values of k and t_1/2: Sample A (k 0.005–0.655 week ⁻¹ & T_1/2 1.1–148.7 week), Sample B (k 0.002–0.278 week ⁻¹ & T_1/2 2.5–283.9 week), Sample C (k 0.004–0.446 week ⁻¹ & T_1/2 1.4–194.4 week), Sample D (k 0.003–0.148 week ⁻¹ & T_1/2 4.7–211.1 week), Sample E (k 0.009–0.155 week ⁻¹ & T_1/2 4.5–78.5 week), Sample F (k 0.010–0.807 week ⁻¹ & T_1/2 0.9–72.6 week) and Sample G (k 0.007–0.343 week ⁻¹ & T_1/2 2.0–96.0 week).

4. Discussion

PAHs are of great concern due to their documented carcinogenicity and endocrine disruptive activity [7, 8, 9, 10]. The 5 and 6-ring PAHs had degraded the least in this study, these may be due to sequestration in the compost matrix [33]. Co-composting of PAH-contaminated soil with poultry manure was investigated by [34]. Studies by Refs. [35, 36, 37, 38]; established that high molecular weight PAHs are more recalcitrant in the environment and may resist both chemical and microbial degradation. Nevertheless, Composting not only promotes the growth of plants but also enhances the growth and activities of soil microbes [38]. Poultry droppings (PD), when added may therefore serve as a nutrient supplement to the soil microbial population needed to stimulate biodegradation of the total and poly-aromatic hydrocarbons, thereby ameliorating the risk these compounds pose to environment [39]. Some studies [40, 41, 42]; found greater disappearance rates after inoculating their samples with white rot fungi. In this study, SMS was able to degrade a significant amount of 3, 4, 5, and 6 rings, which indicates the potential of SMS to degrade PAHs. A lot of substrates can encourage the fungal degradation of organic pollutants. Spent mushroom compost provides bulk nutrients for indigenous soil micro flora and contains considerable microbial activity [40, 41, 42, 43]. These can be shown by [44], they tested the potential of a mixed substrate used for mushroom cultivation (MCS) in the bioremediation of aged, PAH-contaminated soil. Three PAHs, anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene, were most subject to degradation, which is consistent with the PAH degradation features of fungal laccase. Since poultry manure is rich in carbon and mineral nutrient, particularly nitrogen [45] and SMS have the ability to degrade lignin and PAHs. A combination of poultry droppings and SMS degraded the PAHs better in the drill cuttings than when with one amendment.

Another study by [46], show a high degradation percentages of total hydrocarbons (82%), n-alkanes (96%) and the 16 USEPA-listed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (93%), when applying 75 and 33% of organic wastes. Although, [46] suggest the application of 75% organic waste produced better result when compared to 33%. In general, the physicochemical properties are the main factor that determines the level of PAHs in the environment and soil sorption of the compound [47]. For the toxicity equivalent values in this study, the total BaPeq (Toxicity values) of 12PAHs in drill cuttings was higher than urban soil in Lisbon, Portugal (229 mg BaPeq/kg [48], Hunpu (52.31 μg/kg) [49], Xinzhou (34 μg/kg) [50], Liaohe estuary (30.0 μg/kg) and Yellow River Delta (11.92 μg/kg) [51] and lower in Palermo, Italy (151–4291 mg BaPeq/kg, [48]. Also, Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for commonly occurring parent PAHs for the protection of environmental and human health provide PAH guidelines were based on the PAHs’ carcinogenic effects [52]. Biodegradability is usually explained by first-order kinetics [39]. In Ref., [39] explained this by suggesting that the higher the biodegradation rate constants, the faster the rate of biodegradation, and consequently, the lower the half-life. The inconsistent effects of nutrient, positive or negative, were clarified by [53], who proposed a resource-ratio theory to envisage how competition for growth-limiting resources influenced biological diversity and function within a biotic community. Braddock et al. [54] recommended that the optimization of the biodegradation rate, by a specific nutrient ratio may differ as dissimilar PAH-degrading microorganisms require different ratios. The effects of biodegradation, the role, and ratio of different nutrients, and the selection of particular degraders, require further research [53].

5. Conclusion

Based on the results obtained in this study, the following conclusions are drawn;

• Using the two types of wastes (plant and animal) is more preferable. Since they both have different properties that have effect on the PAHs.

• Using more quantity of amendment is more effective to degrade PAHs as regard to this study.

• P.Ostreatus degrades PAHs better than poultry dropping. Since P. ostreatus is a non – invasive and non-pathogenic fungus, commonly grown and eaten. It may be more readily accepted by the public for bio-remedial application.

• For composting, large quantity of amendment may be better to enhanced degradation.

Drill cuttings values exceed the safe limit and therefore remain unsafe for land disposal without prior treatment.

6. Recommendation

This study therefore recommends that:

• Drill cuttings should be bio-treated, to bring the contaminant level to acceptable limits, before its land disposal to reduce the level of environmental pollution.

• Oil based mud should be banned while drilling by oil companies except the companies treat the drill cuttings before disposal.

• I recommend that composting should be used with two amendments in treating drill cuttings.

• The findings in this study should be adapted by exploration and production (E&P) waste management companies that are into drill cuttings treatment to reduce the enormous amounts of money, energy and pollution associated with thermal treatment technologies.

Acknowledgments

My acknowledgement goes to my siblings Dr. Theresa C. Allagoa (MD), Dr. Jennifer C. Allagoa (MD) and Josephine Allagoa (Registered Nurse) for their encouragement.

Dedication

I dedicate this chapter to my lovely mother Chief Hon. Mrs. Mary Allagoa. For her unending love, Care, Encouragement to me and my siblings.