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Adsorbents for Water Desalination

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Vishwakarma Ravikumar Ramlal and Savan K. Raj

Submitted: 07 July 2024 Reviewed: 12 July 2024 Published: 22 August 2024

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1006303

Advances in Desalination Insights IntechOpen
Advances in Desalination Insights Edited by Huijin Xu

From the Edited Volume

Advances in Desalination Insights [Working Title]

Prof. Huijin Xu, Associate Prof. Xiaokun Gu, Associate Prof. Yu Qiu, Associate Prof. Hui Wang and Dr. Yasong Sun

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Abstract

The necessity for freshwater is growing as the global population continues to expand. One of the practices the scientific community has proposed to address the present global freshwater crisis is water desalination. This process promotes the production of fresh water from salty water. Due to the significance of high salt removal efficiency, cheap cost, minimal environmental effect, and comparatively low energy requirement, adsorption is considered a potential method for desalination. Predominantly, adsorption techniques do not use chemicals. Among the frequently studied adsorbents for desalination are activated carbons, zeolites, carbon nanomaterials, graphene, and metal or covalent organic framework materials. These materials exhibit various capabilities in terms of adsorption rate, adsorption capacity, stability, and recyclability. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene, two next-generation materials that show numerous functions with increased water transport capabilities, play a significant role and have been considered very appealing enhancers to the desalination process. However, most functional materials have drawbacks, including the need for specialized synthesis methods, agglomeration, leaching, and issues related to the environment and human health. This chapter will focus on current trends in adsorbent material development and evaluate the most recent materials with their properties, which might help with adsorbent design from an engineering application standpoint.

Keywords

  • adsorbents
  • porous materials
  • adsorption desalination
  • graphene
  • zeolite
  • MOFs
  • and COFs

1. Introduction

Freshwater resources and energy supplies are under increasing stress due to modern society’s fast expansion and growing population [1, 2]. Urbanization, economic growth, and rising living standards have made the water shortage a worldwide issue [3]. The demand for freshwater will have increased by 40% by 2050 [4, 5, 6]. Most of the world is covered with seawater, making extracting fresh water from it practical. As a result, desalination technology emerges as a viable solution to the issue of water shortage [7, 8]. Nowadays, three primary varieties of desalination techniques are commonly utilized globally: (1) thermal desalination, which includes membrane desalination techniques, like forward osmosis (FO) and reverse osmosis (RO); (2) chemical desalination, which comprises gas hydrate and ion exchange desalination; and (3) non-thermal desalination, that involves multi-effect distillation (MED) and multi-stage flash evaporation [9, 10, 11]. Reverse osmosis and multi-effect distillation are the two most widely used desalination methods available today [12, 13]. It is interesting to note that various desalination techniques are applied in various parts of the world and that the ratio of applications varies as well (Figure 1). However, there are still significant problems with traditional desalination methods, including: (1) increased maintenance costs; (2) corrosion and blockage of membrane mass exchangers; and (3) high-grade fossil power consumption and pollution emission. As such, classic desalination techniques are not up to the current demands of sustainable energy and environmental development.

Figure 1.

Categories of presently available desalination technology [14].

A thin layer of molecules, ions, or atoms from a material (gas or liquid) sticks to a surface and forms adsorption, a surface phenomenon. It is used for contamination removal, separation, and purification and involves either chemical or physical interactions. The necessity of creating a unique desalination methodology that uses little power and produces negligible pollution is growing considering the necessity of sustainable human development. As seen in Figure 2, adsorption desalination (AD) is a recent method that achieves desalination by utilizing certain solid materials with porous qualities to both adsorb and desorb water vapor [14, 15]. Because of its great selectivity, effectiveness at low concentrations, and adaptability in eliminating a variety of pollutants, adsorption is a technique that shows promise. Because many adsorbents can be recycled and regenerated, it is both cost-effective and ecologically benign, making them suitable for a wide range of applications.

Figure 2.

Adsorption and desorption process for porous materials [15].

A variety of porous nanomaterials can be utilized in the adsorption desalination systems (ADS), like silica gel, zeolite, and MOFs, and all consist of excellent sorption capacity. These porous materials consist of unique characteristics, including high pore volume and specific area as well as fluid permeability, excellent adsorption capacity, quick adsorption kinetics, and strong selectivity [16, 17, 18, 19]. Since adsorption is associated with the interconnection of the foreign molecules with the surface of the adsorbent, a large surface area is often regarded as a crucial attribute for the enhancement of the sorption capability. However, the guest molecules must have access to the porous material’s surface, particularly its interior surface. Pore sizes determine the material’s surface area, i.e., as the average pore size decreases the surface area increases [20, 21]. The average pore size of the material must be greater than the kinetic diameter of the foreign molecules to allow rapid adsorption kinetics. If the material has secondary pores, a hierarchical pore network is required to provide better guest accessibility to the host surface [22, 23]. Given its potential as a solution to the water scarcity issue, this chapter offers an explanatory overview of the state-of-the-art adsorption process, including the most recent porous contender nanomaterials used as adsorbents [24]. This assessment can serve as a roadmap for future studies aimed at creating highly efficient adsorption desalination technology for real-world applications.

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2. Overview of the emerging and well-known adsorbents

2.1 Activated carbon (AC)

Activated carbon is considered as a category of facile carbon-based materials, that can be attained via different economically affordable raw materials like wood straws, glucose, nut shells, coal, scrap plastic, papermaking waste, and sewage waste [25, 26, 27]. The porosity characteristics of AC can be tuned according to the activation methods and precursors utilized. Because of their excellent porosity, vast surface area, different surface functional groups, etc., AC with hierarchical porous construction could be highly advantageous for adsorption [28, 29]. The structure and chemical characteristics of AC must be constructed for the enhancement of its adsorption capability. This can be attained by a variety of post-synthetic modification methods, including oxidation, that can be attained via chemical, air, or electrochemical oxidation [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. The most popular technique for oxidizing AC is acid treatment with nitric and sulfuric acids [38, 39], which can provide the altered AC surface oxygenated groups. These different groups interact with metal ions for the formation of metal complexes, which increase the capability of AC to absorb metal ions [40, 41, 42]. It was observed that the steadiness of the metal complexes that formed correlated with the affinity of metal ions to the AC (acid-treated) [43]. Because of dipole–dipole interactions, hydrogen bonds, and covalent bonds, grafted AC containing nitrogen (N) functionalities, deliver a comparatively high adsorption capability for negatively charged ions [44, 45]. Organic species from water, like 4-chlorophenol and 2,4 dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), may be effectively eliminated by using base-treated AC [46]. For instance, there was a 22.8% improvement in the remediation of 2,4-DCP on AC functionalized with ammonia [47]. The active surface area and pore volumes are often reduced by both basic and acid treatments for AC, which may harm adsorption. For instance, even though the NaOH-treated AC had more oxygen groups on it, the sorption ability of AC for chromium ions was not increased [48]. This might be lessened by tuning the analysis parameters. For instance, it has been reported that following thermal ammonia treatment, AC’s porosity and pore structure were maintained, which helped boost the adsorption capacity for perchlorate (ClO4) [49]. In Addition, microwave irradiation treatment has been used for AC, offering rapid and selective heating that cuts down on treatment time and energy [50, 51, 52]. Furthermore, in other reports treatment using plasma and ozone was employed [53, 54, 55, 56]. However, it should be considered that AC sorption is primarily utilized as electrodes in the capacitive deionization (CDI) method for deionizing water sources. It was also frequently utilized to remediate heavy metals and organic pollutants, and there was only a limited evaluation of the adsorption capability of AC for ionic salts (like sodium and chloride) [57, 58].

2.2 Zeolites

Natural zeolites are employed as desalination adsorbents [59, 60]. Zeolites have a well-organized three-dimensional (3D) architecture with corals and channels within. Their general chemical formula is Mx/n [AlxSiyO2 (x + y)].pH2O, where M is (Na, K, Li) and/or (Ca, Mg, Ba, Sr), n is the cation charge, and y/x = 1–6 and p/x = 1–4. Because silicon and aluminum contain valences that make them inherently negatively charged, zeolites may exchange ions with a wide range of positively charged organic compounds and cations. Furthermore, the high porosity of zeolite (usually 30–40% with pore diameters of 0.3–0.8 nm) can facilitate the high adsorption kinetically [61, 62]. Since zeolite water may be considered as a pathway for the exchange of ions between exchangeable cations and ionic salts, it can also accelerate the adsorption kinetics. Different types of zeolites exist in nature (like phillipsite, chabazite, stilbite, analcime, clinoptilolite, and mordenite) with different adsorption properties. The crystalline structure and constituent present within have a direct impact on their adsorption capability and kinetics. For instance, mordenite type zeolite, a common natural zeolite, has an excellent ability to adsorb Ca2+ and Mg2+ due to ion transportation between sodium ion and the two cations, and may efficiently decrease the concentration of Na+ in the region i.e. around 73% [63, 64]. However, the negative charge of zeolite will reduce the adsorption capacity of anions like Cl− and SO42− by 20% and 30%, respectively [65]. With an exchange capacity of 11 mg g−1, another naturally occurring zeolite bigadic clinoptilolite, can also remove Ca2+ from aqueous media [63]. Seawater desalination is another use for natural zeolites. In a study, Wajima et al. [65] extracted NaCl from seawater by utilizing a modified zeolite from Fukushima, Japan. Before adsorption, the zeolites were functionalized with silver nitrate and heated at 60°C for 12 h. This study resulted in an 81.73% declination in NaCl under batch conditions. In a literature report, Wibowo et al. [66] used functionalized zeolites from Indonesia (clinoptilolite) to decrease the salinity in seawater. The adsorption ability of the zeolite was increased to 51.43 mg g−1 in the lab-scale pilot method by thermally activated at 225°C for 3 h with no usage of any chemical reagents. Zeolites have a sorption ability of 2–20 mg g−1, which is often more than that of AC [63]. Therefore, natural zeolites may be an affordable option for saltwater desalination sorbent materials. Zeolites are useful in water treatment for ionic salts and heavy metal ions as well as inorganic anions (e.g., NO3−, SO42−, PO43−, F−, ClO4−, CN−) [67, 68, 69, 70] and organic compounds, like dyes [71, 72, 73, 74]. Hydrothermally produced zeolites, like (Linde type A) LTA, can also be employed as adsorbents (Figure 3). The physicochemical properties of these materials can be adjusted for the enhancement of their remediation ability by altering the synthesis conditions. For example, mesoporous LTA (mesopores with pore size 3 nm) was created to decline the diffusion resistance. It illustrates an improved Mg2+ adsorption rate because of the increased ion diffusion rate in its porous network, which was greater than the pristine microporous LTA by about 17.5 times [75].

Figure 3.

(a) TEM image of the zeolite, and (b) pseudo-second-order fitting lines and competitive exchange data of Ca2+/Mg2+ [75].

2.3 Graphene and graphene-based materials

Graphene and its related materials are well-known for water treatment applications. When graphene is pristine, it consists of a singular sheet of carbon atoms situated in an aromatic sp2 hybridization. With a theoretical surface area value of around 2630 m2g−1, graphene is considered a popular example of a high-surface material. The reason is that each atom in a graphene sheet consisting of a singular layer is open to the environment on both ends. Graphene is a desirable material for adsorption technology because of its large surface area, rich in oxygen content, adjustable surface chemistry, and scalable manufacture [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]. Figure 4 shows the composition and Table 1 reflects the key characteristics of graphene-based materials (like graphene oxide (GO)) employed in water treatment applications. The oxygen-containing groups in graphene are responsible for the remediation of metal ions. Because GO comprises oxygen species that can interact with metal species, it is frequently chosen over pure graphene for metal ion remediation [83]. The remediation capacity of graphene can be progressively impacted by ionic strength and pH in addition to oxygen-containing groups.

Figure 4.

An overview of structural properties of graphene and its derivatives for adsorption and desalination [83].

PropertiesGrapheneGraphene oxideReduced graphene oxide
Synthesis

  • Chemical vapor deposition

  • Thermal decomposition of SiC

  • Graphite exfoliation

Oxidation and exfoliation of graphiteReduction of graphene oxide
C:O ratioNo oxygen2–48–246
Young’s modulus (TPa)10.20.25
Electron mobility (cm2V−1 s−1)10,000–50,000insulator0.05–200
Production costHighLowLow

Table 1.

Properties of graphene and its derivatives [83].

The electric double layer (EDL) of hydrated chemical functionalities can change depending on the ionic strength, which can affect how metal ions attach to GO sheets. In general, reducing pH values causes the sorption capacity to decline. An inclination in adsorption capacity results from the positive charge of metal ions interacting favorably with GO’s negatively charged surface. Graphen-based materials have also been used to remediate anionic species from aqueous media, like Cl−, PO4−, ClO4−, and F−. The process of anionic species sorption was linked to anion-π interactions, in contrast to the immobilization of cationic metal species. Mishra et al. [84] used hydrogen-induced exfoliation of GO to produce and functionalize graphene sheets. Using the functionalized adsorbent, monovalent ions (sodium) and multivalent ions (arsenic (III and V)) were remediated from an aqueous media at the same time. The highest sorption capacities for sodium and arsenic were 122, and 142 mg g−1, respectively, according to Langmuir isotherm. GO has a strong adsorption capacity to remove divalent ions (like calcium) from drinking water [85]. Overall, GO helps to remove monovalent and divalent ions up to 99% of the time. According to experimental studies, GO has a removal efficiency of 212 mg g−1. In comparison to other adsorbents for example AC and activated alumina, these values are quite high. Given its comparable chemistry, it is anticipated that GO will similarly be efficient in eliminating magnesium ions from water. The free-standing GO membranes have been used excessively for desalination purposes (Figure 5(a)) [86]. In another report, Chu et al., fabricated a new β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) modified graphene oxide (CDGO) membrane for the effective adsorption of bisphenol A (BPA), with a high flux and sorption capacity [87]. Three CDGO membranes with variations in the concentration of CDGO nanosheets i.e. 5 mg, 10 mg, and 20 mg were made and labeled as M1, M2, and M3 (Figure 5(b)). These membranes have fluxes one or two orders of magnitude greater than the reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes earlier utilized for BPA remediation, with a BPA rejection effectiveness of almost 100% (Figure 5(c)).

Figure 5.

(a) Process of making the GO self-standing membrane, (b) SEM images of the self-standing GO membrane, and (c) BPA removal performances of M1, M2, and M3 membranes in the 0.01 mM BPA [85, 86].

Since their discovery by Iijima [88], carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been the attractive subject of much research for a variety of uses, including desalination. CNTs are one-dimensional (1D) cylinders made of micro or nanoscale graphene sheets. Their high porosity, large surface areas, easy functionalization, and hollow/layered architectures make them a perfect fit for desalination and water purification applications [89, 90, 91]. For instance, in a study, CNT nanocomposite sheets were created via the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique for sodium ion remediation. Even so, because of the low loading of CNTs on the substrate, the adsorption capacity was very restricted up to 22.09 mg g−1 [92]. Forming CNT sheets aligned in the vertical direction with functionalized open ends that permit liquid to get through is an additional method [93, 94]. Because of the decreased friction on CNT walls, there may be a significant water permeance. More significantly, because ionic salts are absorbed rather than remediation, a low mass transfer resistance can be shown, implying a shallow operating pressure and minimal power usage. Yang et al. [95] provided evidence of CNT sheets’ ability to remove salt from aqueous conditions. They demonstrated that plasma treatment of CNTs produced a salt removal capacity that was two orders of magnitude higher than that of AC, surpassing 400% by mass. It is important to note that producing CNT sheets with high surface areas is extremely difficult, even if doing so is essential to moving the technology closer to commercialization [96]. Figure 6 illustrates the methods to increase the sorption capability of CNTs. In another study, Cao et al. used a ball-milling method to synthesize nickel hexacyanoferrate and carbon nanotube composites (NiHCF@CNTs) [97]. They demonstrate an asymmetric flow electrode capacitive deionization system (AFCDI) employing NiHCF@CNTs and AC as the flow cathode and anode, respectively. These results indicated that the AFCDI system outperformed the Flow electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI) system in terms of average salt remediation rate and power consumption. This was because the combination of the high specific capacitance of NiHCF and the superior conductivity of CNTs improved charge transfer.

Figure 6.

Methods to increase the sorption ability of CNTs: (a) popular method for using CNTs for the adsorption process; and (b) various methods for surface modification of CNTs [96].

2.4 Metal: organic frameworks (MOFs)

Metal–organic framework nanomaterials (MOFs) are formed by coordination-bonded organic ligands and metal clusters. They are well-known for having uniform pore sizes, high porosity, tunable physiochemical properties, large specific surface area (1000–10,000 m2g−1), and the capability to be functionalized easily [98, 99, 100]. With extraordinarily high adsorption efficiencies, MOFs are extremely attractive next-generation adsorbents due to their beneficial properties [101, 102, 103]. A variety of anionic substrates, including ClO4−, MnO42−, CrO4−, and ReO4− [104, 105, 106, 107], can be efficiently adsorbed by MOFs possessing cation charge capability, such as SLUG-21, SLUG-22, SLUG-35, and 1-ClO4. Several Zn-based MOFs were reported for the remediation of AsO43− and Cr2O72−, and some Chromium-based MOFs demonstrated high sorption capability for some anionic adsorbates, including F−, AsO34−, SeO42−, PO43−, SO42−, and PtCl62− [108, 109]. Anion exchange adsorption can also be accomplished using 3D cationic MOFs [110, 111, 112]. For their use in desalination, the stability of MOFs in aqueous conditions presents challenges. Numerous MOFs with strong adsorption properties and comparatively high water stability were fabricated during these periods, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7.

Different types of MOFs for the water treatment application [96].

Three main approaches can be used to enhance the sorption capacity: (i) synthesize MOFs with lengthy organic molecules to increase the size of the pore and aid in the passing of substances within MOFs; (ii) design flawed MOFs to increase their pore size and/or add more sorption cavities [113, 114, 115]; and (iii) functionalize MOFs. In particular, the surface modification of MOFs can enhance their sorption/exchange and regeneration properties. MOFs can be functionalized in two ways: (i) by grafting charge-balancing anionic species (like polyelectrolytes) to their metal sites. This can be achieved by modifying the synthesis anion stripping process and adding charged secondary building units during and after synthesis [116], and (ii) by introducing counterions to ligands of MOFs through self-assembly. Additional pendant functional groups, such as —NH2, —OH, and —SH, can increase the number of sorption sites and improve the selectivity of MOFs [117, 118]. Although MOFs have been utilized in CDI [119, 120], they cannot be directly utilized as electrode materials because of their minimal electric conductivity and chemical stability. To achieve conductivity, the controlled porosity coming from the structure of the parent MOFs is utilized [121], carbon nanomaterials were produced employing MOFs (as templates) for CDI applications. In a study, a 3D porous MOF-199@PVP/MWCNTs (CMPC) was synthesized by Li et al. to improve U(VI) electrosorption in water [122]. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) interpenetrating one another created a localized conductive network that improved their characteristics even further. With an impressive removal ratio of 95.2% and an uptake electrosorption ability of 410.3 mg g−1 for UO22+ aqueous media (1.2 V), the CMPC electrode was thus proved to be effective. In another work, Peng et al. fabricated NiFe-metal organic framework@NiFe-layered double hydroxides/carbon fiber (MOF@LDH/CC) electrodes for effective electrosorption [123]. In order to prevent the aggregation of NiFe-LDH and enhance the bond between the CC and NiFe-LDH, the NiFe-MOF acts as a catalyst to facilitate the growth of LDH. For preventing aggregation of NiFe-LDH and strengthening a bond between the CC and NiFe-LDH, the NiFe-MOF serves as a seed to promote the growth of LDH. The improved structures performed well and attained an excellent initial salt remediation capacity of 0.033 mg cm−2.

2.5 Covalent organic framework (COFs)

Covalent bonds between light elements like carbon (C), nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and boron (B) result in the formation of crystalline framework materials, or COFs [124]. Their intrinsic properties, like excellent surface area, uniform tunable aperture diameters, and great chemical stability, make them suitable nanomaterials for adsorption applications. The removal of salts, heavy metals, and dyes has all been done using COFs [125, 126, 127, 128, 129]. Lewis acid–base interactions, hydrogen bonds, π–π stacking, and electrostatic attractions are the primary mechanisms behind dye molecule adsorption on COFs. For instance, at tiny concentrations of 32 × 10−6 mol L−1, highly water-stable polycationic COFs can remediate many organic dyes, dominantly through electrostatic interaction between the anionic groups of the dyes and the bipyridinium cations of the COF [130]. High sorption capacities for dyes like auramine O and rhodamine B were also demonstrated by the collaboration of MOF-5 and melamine-based COFs [131]. Additionally, COFs have shown the ability to adsorb heavy metals, including Pb2+, Hg2+, U6+, and Cr3+ [132, 133, 134, 135]. Any prospective use of COFs requires their water stability, and many of them have weak stability in aqueous solutions, particularly those made of boroxines or boronate esters, that are readily countered by nucleophiles. Linkers that are relatively stable in water, such as imine, hydrazine, triazine, and azine, can be utilized to prepare COFs and increase their water stability [136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141]. To increase the compatibility of COFs in hostile environments, an intramolecular hydrogen bonding strategy can also be used [142, 143]. Enhancing the water stability of COFs can also be achieved by incorporating them with different materials that are water-stable. When GO was combined with COF, which is made up of 2,6-diaminoanthraquinone (DAAQ) and 1,3,5-triformylphloroglucinol (TFP), for instance, the resultant graphene-synergized COF (GS-COF) demonstrated better uranium and plutonium sorption capabilities than both GO and COF. For example, uranium 220.1 mg g−1 (GS-COF) compared to 92.5 mg g−1 (GO) and 105.0 mg g–1 (COF), The interaction of π systems between the contributing nanomaterials and various types of sheet structure, together with the chemical interaction produced throughout the intricate procedure, also enhanced the acid stability of the resulting complex in liquid conditions [144].

Present research has investigated the utilization of COFs in the elimination of salt from aqueous media, including brackish water [145]. For instance, a nitrogen-doped porous carbon anode and a redox-active COF with a salt removal efficiency of 22.8 mg g−1 have been carried out to a hybrid CDI as the cathode material [146]. Due to their high flexibility, COFs have the potential to be further explored and may offer unique insights into the advancement of materials for adsorption, even though their adsorption capability is currently limited when compared to other materials [147].

2.6 Other adsorbents

Different materials, including industrial wastes and by-products like fly ash, and waste slurry, were also illustrated for adsorption [148], in addition to the adsorbents covered above. For instance, fly ash from power plants is far more cost-effective and demonstrated a somewhat higher Na+ elimination effectiveness (23%) than zeolite Y (21%) [149]. Agricultural wastes and by-products, such as fruit stones and/or shells, in their unprocessed or treated states, have also been studied as low-cost bio-adsorbents for treating wastewater and water [148]. One cost-effective aspect of desalination is the utilization of waste materials. However, their capabilities need to be enhanced before commercialization. Because of their high surface area, porous network, and strong hydrophilicity, 2D inorganic MXenes have gained popularity recently in various applications [149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155]. These have lately been illustrated as adsorbents for applications involving the removal of salts. For instance, MXene Ti3C2Tx film was fabricated by Zhang et al., and remediation rates of Zn2+, Pb2+, phenol, and crystal violet by MXene composite membranes are above 90% [156]. The results indicate MXene’s potential for desalination, which warrants more research and development. Agricultural wastes and byproducts have garnered a lot of interest lately as an adsorbent for the extraction of metal contaminants from aqueous medium. Bio-sorption is the term for using agricultural wastes and by-products in the bioremediation of pollutants like salt and heavy metals [157]. Hemicellulose, lignin, lipids, proteins, simple sugars, water, hydrocarbons, and starch are the common components of biological and agricultural wastes; each of these substances has a distinct functional category. These bio-materials could be employed in their original state or following chemical or physical alteration [158]. Moreover, silica-based nanomaterials have been broadly utilized to remediate ions from brackish and seawater [159]. To remove boron, an investigation was carried out by Amor et al. [160] in which they prepared homogeneous porous silica (OMS) type SBA-15 that was both pristine and treated using glucamine. In the experiments conducted, after three hours, the modified SBA-15 reached equilibrium and had a boron removal capability of around 45%, compared to 23% for the original one. Another study investigated for the remediation of boron using diol-functionalized silica by Tang et al. with excellent sorption capacities of 1.54 mmol g−1 [161] and N-methyl-D-glucamine based silica-supported adsorbent (Si-MG) by Xu et al., [162] which has the sorption capacity of 13.26 mg g−1. Copper sulfate (CuSO4), generally a salt hydrate substance, because of its reversible chemical interaction with water vapor, may be utilized in adsorption desalination. Ali et al. conducted a study to investigate the benefits of using copper sulfate salt hydrate as a new adsorption pair in a thermally driven adsorption system [163]. Also, functional materials are very much utilized in desalination processes that could either enhance the performance or lower the water production costs [164]. Functional materials are unquestionably crucial in many desalination systems. Nevertheless, these materials have drawbacks and restrictions of their own, whether related to synthesis, characterization, or integration with desalination systems. However, new developments and studies are always being conducted to find ways around these restrictions. Different materials used in water purification and desalination are demonstrated in Table 2.

MaterialPollutant removedAdsorption capacity (mg/g)References
Activated carbon fiber (ACF)NaCl4.64[165]
Activated carbon fiber ACF-HNO3NaCl12.8[166]
ACC-ZnONaCl8.5[167]
AC-A&AC-CNaCl14.-20[168]
NPC@ACFNaCl14.63[169]
ACNFsNaCl827.5[170]
Neapolitan yellow tuff (NYT)Humic acid8.51[171]
Ca-CLTNH32.60[172]
MIL-100(Fe)Malachite green485[173]
MIL-53(Al)–NH2Methylene blue, Malachite green164.9[174]
ZIF-8Malachite green1667[175]
ZIF-8Diclofenac sodium19[176]
AgOH–MWCNTsUO22+140[177]
Fe3O4@AMCA-MIL53(Al)U(VI) and Th(IV)227.3[178]
COF-PDAN-AOUO22+256[179]
COF-SO3HUO22+360[180]
SCU-COF-199TcO4−62.8[181]
COF-S-SHHg2+1350[182]
COF-BTA-DHBZCr (VI)384[135]
COF-LZU8U (VI)236[183]
AS-MWCNTsCo(II) and Zn(II)364[184]
MWCNTsTrihalomethanes10.98[185]
Polyanilline/ MWCNTsMeloxicam221.2[186]
Granular CNTs/ AluminaDiclofenac sodium and Carbamazepine106.5[187]
CNT-FA-SAMethylene blue236.5[188]
Acid treated MWCNTsTrihalomethanes0.92–2.41[189]
Asp-CNTMalachite green and Methylene blue637 and 500[190]

Table 2.

Different adsorbents used in the water purification and desalination application.

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3. Summary and outlooks

The existing membrane-based and thermally activated desalination technologies may be replaced by the promising desalination technology known as adsorption. The foundation of adsorption desalination techniques is a porous material. For the application of adsorption, various porous nanomaterials have been studied. The metrics demonstrate that:

  1. Although having a relatively modest adsorption capacity, AC and zeolites are safer, less expensive materials with excellent stability.

  2. Even though the adsorption capacity and adaptability of graphene and carbon nanotubes are quite great; their safety issues must be appropriately addressed.

  3. Because of their high compositional and structural plasticity, MOFs have a high sorption capacity and significant potential; yet cost and stability are crucial factors in advancing applications of MOFs on a large scale.

  4. COFs also have a lot of capability for use in adsorption because of their extreme adaptability; however, research on COFs is still in its early stages.

  5. The inexpensive cost and large-scale manufacture of other adsorbents like silica, bio-adsorbents, MXenes, fly ash, etc. are advantages, however, their water vapor adsorption capability is insufficient. Findings indicate that MOFs are a sort of adsorbent that shows promise. These porous materials do, however, typically come with a high price tag and issues with stability and hydrolysis. Therefore, the primary difficulty going forward will be the large-scale manufacture of stable, affordable MOFs.

Adsorption desalination is a novel desalination method that has achieved a lot of interest and developed quickly in recent years. Simultaneously, this technology has advanced significantly in theory and experimentation. Adsorption desalination system research, however, is still in the small-scale validation stage and requires a larger-scale demonstration project. Future studies must concentrate on hybrid systems and high-performance adsorbents in order to create more alluring adsorption desalination technologies. If the cost can be further reduced, MOFs, which have a lot of promise in high-performance adsorbent research, will have outstanding practical value. In terms of optimizing the system structure, the thermodynamic performances and heat/mass transfer of adsorbent beds and multifunction mixed systems show greater promise.

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Written By

Vishwakarma Ravikumar Ramlal and Savan K. Raj

Submitted: 07 July 2024 Reviewed: 12 July 2024 Published: 22 August 2024

© The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This content is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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