Perspective Chapter: Biopesticides to Produce Zero-Residue Vegetables

Abstract

Vegetables are a vital source of phytonutrients that are essential for human health. However, inadequate availability and phytotoxicity lead to various diseases in our daily lives. Therefore, it is crucial to produce and consume vegetables with minimal or no residues to ensure they are safe for consumption. Biological pesticides are natural products that can be consumed by humans without being harmful to them. The use of bio-pesticides is an effective way to manage different biotic stresses in vegetable production. By adopting this approach, we can confidently ensure safer and healthier vegetable production. This chapter provides a brief explanation of the different types of biopesticides, their mode of action, and their application in vegetable production toward the production of zero residues vegetables.

1. Introduction

Phytonutrients in vegetables are the most essential part of our daily diet because they contribute to strengthening our immunity. In this post-pandemic era, we are more concentrated on boosting our immunity with fruits and vegetables. Our goal is not to protect against the virus, rather to prevent it from infecting us. As a result, we are striving to eliminate medicines by substituting fruits and vegetables for them. The presence of fruits and vegetables in our daily diet ensures an adequate intake of fiber, as a digestive aid. Fiber provides a feeling of fullness and reduces overeating, but the consumption of fruits and vegetables in India is lower than the WHO recommended quantity of 400 g because of limited availability. The limited availability of vegetables may be a result of losses happening at different stages of their entire lifecycle, which can happen at the producer (farmer) level as well as the wholesaler and retailer level. Furthermore, post-harvest losses happen at several points of the supply chain, including harvesting, grading and packaging, handling, shipping, storage, and marketing. Almost all these factors have an impact on the availability of vegetables in India [1]. Very often the injudicious use of undesirable agrochemicals like herbicides, insecticides, and pesticides leads to the spoilage of vegetables expressing a high magnitude of phytotoxicity. Less availability coupled with phytotoxicity is a major cause of hidden hunger. In contrast, the projected Indian population by 2050–2051 is estimated to be 182.35 crores [2]. The consumption of food products has been rising, and the projected requirements will more than double. It is estimated that fruits and vegetable imports will amount to more than 58.2 and 47.0 billion dollars in 2050 (based on 2009 US dollars), compared with negligible vegetable trade in 2009. Feeding the nation is our primary responsibility. Hence it is very clear that, though we are somehow self-sufficient in producing more fruits and vegetables, we are far from producing toxicity-free quality foods. The present day requires a toxin-free diet. Today, our goal is to produce “zero residues” foods. Unseemly application of chemical pesticides is deleterious to fruits and vegetables both in terms of quality and quantity. As a result of the residual impact of these chemicals, human bodies experience severe carcinogenic effects. Human health is adversely affected by the constant deposition of these health-hazardous agrochemicals on the earth. Biopesticides are natural substances derived from animals, plants, and microorganisms like bacteria, cyanobacteria, and microalgae. They are utilized to maintain plant health. With nano biopesticides, specific pests and diseases can be managed as well, and the toxicity of crops can be minimized. Biopesticides create a sustainable environment that is safe and toxicity-free for growing quality foods. The production and consumption of quality foods will eventually result in a sustainable environment for humans. Thus, biopesticides can also be viewed as gifts from God for the coming future.

2. Need of the hour

Global food security is threatened by various factors, including biotic stress caused by viruses and insect pests. But we have an innovative and effective solution to protect crops and maintain a healthy balance between chemical pesticides and the environment, i.e., biopesticides. There are three methods of applying biopesticide: seed treatment, soil soaking, and foliar spraying. Among these, seed priming, which involves providing helpful bacteria to seeds, is a highly effective technique. This method aids in accumulating inorganic compounds and remediating metal-contaminated soils through plants. The beneficial microbes in biopriming can also induce resistance responses against herbivores and phytopathogens by controlling three phytohormones—salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene. Elicited defensive responses are classified into two types: systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR). Biopriming is a promising strategy that supports synchronized seed germination and seedling establishment, providing strong immune responses for early seedlings. This natural approach helps crops resist diseases, stay healthy, and decrease reliance on chemical inputs. This study aims to promote agricultural sustainability by using biopriming with beneficial bacteria as a biopesticide, reducing the need for chemical inputs. Microbial bio-agents are highly effective in combating plant pathogens through diverse mechanisms, such as direct antagonism, mixed interactions, and indirect antagonism. These interactions employ a range of strategies, including parasitism, predation, antibiosis, enzyme production, competition for nutrients and space, and inducing plant resistance mechanisms. Moreover, microbial bio-agents not only control plant pathogens but also significantly promote plant growth and increase stress tolerance. These bio-agents play a critical and indispensable role in safeguarding plants against the harmful effects of phytopathogens and significantly enhance overall plant health [3].

The “Green Revolution” in Indian agriculture was undoubtedly a breakthrough that led to a significant increase in crop production. However, the overuse of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers had a detrimental impact on soil quality, the environment, and human health. This resulted in several issues, such as insecticide residues, pest outbreaks, and resistance in over 500 insect species. With the global population set to reach a staggering 9 billion by 2050, the world faces a colossal 70% increase in food demand [4]. Regrettably, agriculture is still grappling with the aftermath of these negative impacts, which are further compounded by the effects of climate change. Therefore, there is an increasing awareness about the paramount importance of pesticide-free, high-quality products, leading to a shift toward alternative approaches like “Green Technologies” for plant protection.

Vegetables are an incredibly valuable crop. However, they can be vulnerable to insect pests and diseases, which can cause significant damage. Chemical pesticides have been commonly used to combat these issues, but their indiscriminate use can have harmful effects on the environment and human health. Moreover, overuse of pesticides can lead to insects developing resistance to them. Therefore, it is imperative to adopt alternative pest management techniques to reduce the misuse of chemical pesticides in vegetable production. Fortunately, biopesticides have emerged as a highly promising option for vegetable growers, despite some challenges that need to be addressed [5].

Biopesticides are a safe and effective solution for controlling pests and pathogens in agriculture. These are natural substances from animals, plants, and microorganisms like bacteria, cyanobacteria, and microalgae. As per the US Environmental Protection Agency, they are derived from natural sources, such as animals, plants, bacteria, and specific minerals [4]. These pesticides consist of genes and metabolites from these sources that help protect crops. Biopesticides are environment-friendly and target specific pests, unlike conventional chemical pesticides. They provide significant advantages in agriculture by protecting crops while being environmentally safe.

3. Importance of biopesticides

The importance of biopesticides lies in their numerous advantages for agriculture and the environment. Here are some key reasons why biopesticides are important:

1. Environment-friendly: Biopesticides are derived from natural sources, reducing the environmental impact associated with synthetic chemical pesticides. They are typically less harmful to non-target organisms, along with beneficial insects, birds, and mammals, and have lower toxicity levels.

2. Reduced chemical residues: Biopesticides leave fewer chemical residues on crops, which is beneficial for food safety and reduces potential health risks for consumers.

3. Target-specific: Many biopesticides are highly specific to the pests they target, minimizing harm to beneficial insects and other organisms. This specificity helps maintain ecological balance in agricultural ecosystems.

4. Resistance management: The use of biopesticides can help delay the development of pesticide resistance in pests, as they often work through different modes of action than chemical pesticides.

5. Sustainable agriculture: These are an integral part of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, promoting sustainable agriculture by reducing the reliance on synthetic chemicals and minimizing the impact on ecosystems.

6. Safe for farmworkers: Biopesticides are generally safer for farmworkers who handle them compared to chemical pesticides, reducing the risk of pesticide-related health issues.

7. Compliance with regulatory standards: Biopesticides often have shorter re-entry intervals and pre-harvest intervals, making it easier for farmers to comply with pesticide application regulations.

8. Biodiversity conservation: By preserving non-target species and promoting biodiversity in agricultural landscapes, biopesticides contribute to the long-term health and resilience of ecosystems.

9. Consumer demand: With growing consumer awareness of sustainable and organic farming practices, the use of biopesticides aligns with market preferences and can enhance the marketability of agricultural products.

10. Reduced environmental pollution: Biopesticides are less likely to contaminate soil, water, and air compared to chemical pesticides, helping to reduce environmental pollution.

4. Classification of biopesticides

Biopesticides can be grouped into three main categories.

1. Microbial pesticides: These use tiny organisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, or protozoa to control specific pests. Each microbe targets a particular type of pest, making them quite precise in their action. For instance, some fungi control certain weeds, while others target specific insects.

2. Biochemical pesticides: These are natural substances that manage pests without any toxicity. They work through mechanisms like interfering with mating (e.g., insect sex pheromones) or attracting pests to traps using scented plant extracts. Unlike traditional pesticides, they do not directly kill or inactivate pests.

3. Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs): These are pest-controlling stuff produced by plants using added genetic material. Scientists insert genes, such as the one for the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) pesticidal protein, into the plant’s genetic code. The modified plant then produces the substance that can eliminate specific pests, eliminating the need for external pesticide application.

4. Botanical insecticides: Botanical insecticides, popularly known as natural insecticides, are highly effective and safe insecticides that are derived from plants. Organic gardeners often prefer using botanical insecticides instead of synthetic materials because they are safer, healthier, and eco-friendly. To select the right plants for botanical insecticides, it is important to consider these factors, viz. perennials, wide distribution, removable parts, minimal water and nourishment requirements, and active ingredients that are effective at low rates.

5. Mode of action of biopesticides

The mode of action of biopesticides can vary depending on the type of biopesticide and the target pest. Here are some common modes of action for different categories of biopesticides.

5.1 Microbial biopesticides

1. Parasitism: Certain microorganisms, such as nematodes or fungi, can parasitize and infect specific pests. They enter the pest’s body and reproduce, ultimately killing the pest.

2. Toxin production: Some microbial biopesticides produce toxins that are lethal to the target pest. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bacteria produce proteins toxic to certain insects when ingested.

3. Competitive exclusion: Microbes can compete with pests for resources or space, making it difficult for the pests to establish themselves.

5.2 Botanical biopesticides

1. Repellance: Botanical biopesticides often contain extracts from plants that pests find unpalatable or repellant. This discourages pests from feeding on or colonizing the treated plants.

2. Growth inhibition: Compounds in botanical biopesticides can disrupt the growth and development of pests. For example, they may interfere with the molting process in insects, preventing them from maturing.

3. Feeding disruption: Some botanicals can disrupt the feeding behavior of pests, making them unable to consume plant tissues.

5.3 Biochemical biopesticides

1. Interference with pheromones: Biochemical biopesticides can contain substances that mimic or interfere with the sex pheromones of pests, disrupting their mating behavior.

2. Attract and kill: They can also include compounds that attract pests to traps or baits, where they are subsequently controlled or killed.

   Biochemical biopesticides act in non-toxic ways, like disrupting pests’ growth, using semiochemicals, suffocating or dehydrating pests, creating barriers or irritation, and inducing resistance in plants. These modes of action are non-toxic as they do not involve direct chemical or biological interactions that result in direct lethality to the target pest organism.

5.4 Plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs)

1. Toxin production: Genes introduced into the plant’s genetic material (e.g., Bt genes) enable the plant to produce toxins that are toxic to specific pests when they feed on the plant.

2. Systemic action: Some PIPs act systemically, meaning that the entire plant contains the protective substance. This provides continuous protection as pests feed on different parts of the plant.

6. Significance of biopesticides in vegetable cultivation

Biopesticides in vegetable cultivation are natural or biological substances that are commonly used to manage pests and diseases in vegetable crops. Here are some of the key biopesticides used in vegetable cultivation:

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): It is a highly useful bacterium that produces proteins that are specifically targeted to certain groups of insects like caterpillars and beetles, making it an effective biopesticide in vegetable farming. It has been successfully used to control harmful pests such as cabbage worms, tomato hornworms, and Colorado potato beetles. Moreover, formulations using Bt subsp. kurstaki and Bt subsp. aizawai have proven highly effective in managing various lepidopteran pests. They work well independently or in combination with other biopesticides or biocontrol agents on vegetables [6].

Neem-based products: Neem oil and neem extracts are derived from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica). They have insecticidal properties and can be effective against a variety of vegetable pests, including aphids, whiteflies, and leafhoppers. Neem extracts are widely used for plant protection due to their potent properties. Extracts from neem seeds are effective against a wide range of pests, including soft-bodied insects and mites. Aqueous extracts of neem seeds can control mosquito larvae. Neem leaf extracts (Figure 1) are used as biopesticides against stored grain pests and as biofertilizers. Neem extracts can be formulated into natural and eco-friendly products for easy application on plants. Nanoformulations of neem extracts have been developed using nanotechnology to enhance their stability and effectiveness. These offer controlled release of active compounds, minimizing non-target toxic effects and improving overall efficacy. Overall, neem extracts provide a sustainable and eco-friendly solution for plant protection [7].

Figure 1.

Neem leaf extract used as biopesticides against stored grain pests.

Fungal biopesticides: Entomopathogens play a crucial role in effectively managing insect pests in vegetable cultivation and have been proven to be highly effective. The main components, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, make up 68% of microbial pesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi. These fungi are skilled at infecting and killing a wide range of insect pests in vegetable crops, including aphids, thrips, and whiteflies. Trichoderma spp., a beneficial fungus, serves as a biopesticide to control soil-borne pathogens like Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, and Pythium. This promotes plant health and reduces the risk of root diseases in vegetables. Trichoderma controls soil-borne pathogens by outcompeting them for nutrients and space, producing antimicrobial compounds, inducing systemic resistance, and exhibiting mycoparasitic activity. It also promotes plant growth and root development to establish a stronger defence system. Overall, Trichoderma is a valuable biocontrol tool for managing soil-borne pathogens and promoting plant health [8].

Predatory insects: Various useful insects, such as ladybugs (lady beetles), lacewings, and parasitoid wasps, are used as biocontrol agents to manage pest populations in vegetable cultivation. For example, ladybugs can help control aphids, while parasitoid wasps can parasitize and control caterpillar pests.

Copper-based fungicides: Copper-based biopesticides are used to manage fungal diseases in vegetables, including blights and mildews. Copper-based products like copper sulfate, copper sulfate pentahydrate, copper hydroxide, and copper oxychloride have low environmental persistence compared to synthetic chemical fungicides.

Plant extracts: Some biopesticides are derived from plant extracts. These can have repellent or toxic effects on pests. These extracts obtained from plants are capable of serving as biostimulants and plant protection agents. Examples include garlic extract, chili pest, and neem leaf pest etc. Plant extracts (Figure 2) are a natural and eco-friendly alternative to synthetic chemical pesticides. They contain toxic compounds that target pests through various mechanisms, reducing their reproductive capacity and causing mortality. Plant extracts can also act as repellents, antifeedants, and ovicides, preventing pests from feeding, laying eggs, and hatching. They can interfere with the growth and development of pests, affecting their life cycle and population dynamics. Additionally, some plant extracts have antimicrobial properties that protect plants from disease-causing pathogens. Overall, plant extracts provide effective pest control while minimizing the negative impacts of synthetic chemical pesticides [9].

Figure 2.

Plant extracts—an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic chemical pesticides.

Beneficial nematodes: Entomopathogenic nematodes, such as Steinernema and Heterorhabditis species, are used to control soil-dwelling insect pests like root-knot nematodes and cutworms in vegetable crops.

Virus-based biopesticides: When it comes to controlling insect pests that harm crops, biopesticides are a highly effective solution. These biopesticides take the form of viruses that specifically target the pests, such as whiteflies and caterpillars. Two of the most effective viruses are Nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) and Granulovirus (GV). Additionally, Entomopathogenic viruses like Helicoverpa armigera NPV, Spodoptera litura NPV, and Spodoptera exigua NPV have been found to be highly effective against various insect pests in vegetables. These viruses have already been commercialized and are widely used to control tomato fruit worm (Helicoverpa armigera), common armyworm (Spodoptera litura), and beet armyworm (S. exigua), respectively.

Bacterial biofungicides: Beneficial bacteria, such as Pseudomonas and Bacillus species, are used to suppress soil-borne diseases like bacterial wilt and damping-off in vegetable crops.

Biochemical pesticides: Biochemical pesticides are natural or non-toxic substances used in vegetable production to control pests and diseases. These work through non-toxic mechanisms, such as disrupting mating behavior or inhibiting pathogen growth. In vegetable production, insect sex pheromones are used to disrupt the mating behavior of pests like moths. By releasing synthetic pheromones, male pests become confused, leading to reduced mating success and fewer larvae.

7. Selection and application of biopesticides

Effective selection and application of biopesticides require careful planning and attention to detail. Integrated pest management (IPM) principles should guide the decision-making process, and compatibility with other pest control methods should be considered. Proper formulation, storage, and application techniques are essential for maximizing the efficacy of biopesticides while minimizing their environmental impact. Adherence to label instructions and safety precautions is crucial for safe and successful biopesticide use in agriculture.

7.1 Integrated pest management (IPM)

1. Assessment: Before selecting a biopesticide, conduct a thorough assessment of the pest problem. Identify the target pests, their population levels, and the extent of damage.

2. Monitoring: Implement regular monitoring and scouting to track pest populations and assess the effectiveness of biopesticide applications.

3. Thresholds: Establish action thresholds to determine when intervention is necessary. IPM emphasizes that treatments should only be applied when pest populations reach economically damaging levels.

7.2 Compatibility with conventional pest control methods

1. Integration: Biopesticides can be integrated with conventional pest control methods, such as synthetic pesticides. However, compatibility should be assessed to ensure that the combined treatments do not negatively affect the efficacy of either method.

2. Sequential applications: Plan the timing of biopesticide applications in coordination with other control measures to maximize effectiveness while minimizing environmental impact.

7.3 Formulation and storage

1. Biopesticide formulation: Different biopesticides are available in various formulations, such as wettable powders, liquid concentrates, or granules. Select a formulation suitable for your specific application method and crop.

2. Storage conditions: Follow manufacturer recommendations for storing biopesticides. They are often sensitive to temperature, light, and moisture. Proper storage helps maintain their efficacy and shelf life.

3. Safety precautions: Handle biopesticides with care, following safety guidelines and wearing appropriate protective equipment as specified on the product label.

4. Application equipment: Ensure that application equipment, such as sprayers or dusters, is clean and properly calibrated to deliver the biopesticide evenly and effectively.

7.4 Application techniques

1. Timing: Apply biopesticides at the right time in the pest’s life cycle or when they are most vulnerable. This can vary depending on the specific biopesticide and target pest.

2. Coverage: Achieve thorough coverage of the plant or soil surface to ensure contact with the pests. Pay attention to the underside of leaves and areas where pests are likely to hide.

3. Dilution and mixing: Follow recommended dilution rates and mixing instructions provided by the biopesticide manufacturer.

4. Adjuvants: Some biopesticides may require adjuvants (e.g., surfactants or stickers) to enhance their effectiveness. Use these as directed.

5. Environmental conditions: Consider factors like temperature, humidity, and wind speed when applying biopesticides. Adverse weather conditions may affect their performance.

6. Record keeping: Maintain records of biopesticide applications, including dates, rates, and observations of pest activity and control.

7.5 Adherence to label instructions

1. Read the label: Always read and follow the label instructions provided by the biopesticide manufacturer. The label provides critical information on usage, safety precautions, application rates, and timing.

2. Legal and regulatory compliance: Ensure compliance with local, national, and international regulations governing the use of biopesticides.

8. Practical instances of biopesticide application in vegetable farming across the globe

Biopesticides have been proven to be highly effective in controlling pests in vegetable cultivation, making them the ideal choice for those looking for eco-friendly pest control solutions.

1. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in organic corn and tomato production

   Bt-based biopesticides are widely used in organic vegetable farming. For instance, organic corn and tomato growers often apply Bt formulations to control caterpillar pests like corn earworms and tomato hornworms. It produces proteins toxic to these pests when ingested, providing an effective and organic-friendly solution [10].

2. Neem oil in organic vegetable farms

   Neem oil, derived from the neem tree, is commonly used in organic vegetable production. Organic farmers apply neem oil to control aphids, whiteflies, and other insect pests on a variety of vegetables, including tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers. Neem oil acts as both a feeding deterrent and a growth regulator for these insects.

3. Beauveria bassiana for whitefly management in greenhouses

   Greenhouse vegetable growers often face challenges with whitefly infestations. Beauveria bassiana, a fungal biopesticide, has been effectively used to manage whiteflies in greenhouse tomato and cucumber crops. The fungus infects and kills the whiteflies, providing sustainable control.

4. Trichoderma spp. in soil-borne disease management

   Trichoderma species are beneficial fungi used to control soil-borne diseases in vegetable cultivation. Farmers apply Trichoderma formulations to soil or as seed treatments to suppress diseases like damping-off and root rot in crops such as lettuce and cabbage [10].

5. Ladybugs (lady beetles) in organic lettuce production

   Ladybugs are natural predators of aphids and other soft-bodied insects. Organic lettuce farmers release ladybugs into their fields to help control aphid populations. These beneficial insects feed on aphids, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.

6. Entomopathogenic nematodes for root-knot nematode control

   Root-knot nematodes can damage vegetable roots, reducing crop yield. Entomopathogenic nematodes, such as Steinernema and Heterorhabditis species, are applied to the soil to parasitize and control root-knot nematode populations in vegetable crops like tomatoes and peppers [10].

7. Insect sex pheromones for cabbage moth control

   Vegetable growers combat cabbage moth infestations by using insect sex pheromones. These pheromones disrupt the mating behavior of male moths, reducing the chances of successful reproduction and caterpillar damage to cabbage and broccoli crops.

9. Challenges and limitations of biopesticides in vegetable production

The use of biopesticides in vegetable crops comes with several challenges and limitations. These limitations often make them less cost-effective and may not always provide the desired outcome. Limitations of using biopesticides in vegetable farming are as follows:

9.1 Resistance management

1. Challenge: Pests can develop resistance to biopesticides over time, reducing their effectiveness. This is especially concerning when a specific biopesticide is relied upon extensively.

2. Limitation: Continuous use of the same biopesticide or its over-reliance in pest management can accelerate the development of resistance, making it necessary to rotate or combine different biopesticides or integrate them with other control methods.

9.2 Regulatory hurdles

1. Challenge: Biopesticides are subject to regulatory scrutiny and approval processes, which can be time-consuming and costly for manufacturers. These regulations aim to ensure safety and efficacy but can pose challenges for market access.

2. Limitation: Some biopesticides may face delays in approval or be restricted in their use, limiting the availability of effective options for vegetable growers.

9.3 Cost considerations

1. Challenge: Biopesticides can sometimes be more expensive than synthetic chemical pesticides, primarily due to production and regulatory costs.

2. Limitation: The higher cost of biopesticides can be a limiting factor for some growers, especially small-scale farmers with limited budgets. This cost challenge can impact the adoption of biopesticide-based pest management strategies.

10. Future trends and research in biopesticide use for growing vegetables

1. Microbial innovations: Scientists are working on new and improved versions of microbial biopesticides, like bacteria and fungi, to better fight a wider range of vegetable pests.

2. Plant-based biopesticides: Researchers are looking into new plant-derived compounds and extracts that can act as pesticides, expanding the options for biopesticides.

3. Insect pheromones and behavior control: Ongoing studies focus on insect sex pheromones and other compounds that can change pest behavior, offering more precise pest control in vegetables.

4. Better formulations: New biopesticide formulas are being created to last longer, stick better to plants, and stay stable. This makes them easier for farmers to use.

5. Precision application: Technology is improving how biopesticides are sprayed on crops. Precision sprayers and drones are making it possible to apply them more accurately, saving time, and resources.

6. Biotechnology and genetic modification: Scientists are making progress in adding biopesticide genes to crops. This means that the crops themselves can produce biopesticides, reducing the need for external applications.

7. Resistance management: Scientists are studying how to deal with pests that become resistant to biopesticides. They are looking at strategies like rotating different biopesticides or using them together.

8. Nano-biopesticides: Nano-formulations of biopesticides are being extensively researched to improve their efficiency, stability, and practicality for vegetable farming. Nano-biopesticides are a superior alternative to traditional pesticides due to their diminutive size, enhanced solubility, stability, mobility, and reduced toxicity. These pesticides can be tested against specific pests to gauge their effectiveness across diverse crops. Nano-biopesticides have specific activities against various pests, such as pupicidal activity, larvicidal activity, and anti-feeding activity. Different types of nano-biopesticides with varying modes of action, such as sabadilla, pyrethrum, azadirachtin, and fluoroacetate, exhibit different effects against pests. For instance, the alkaloid toxin of sabadilla causes a loss of nerve cell membrane, which kills most insects immediately after use. On the other hand, pyrethrins alter the process of sodium and potassium ion exchange in insects’ nerve fibers, resulting in the inhibition of the transmission of nerve impulses. Similarly, azadirachtin has antifeedant activity and causes reduced food consumption instead of control [11].

11. Indian scenario

Biopesticides are seen as a sustainable solution for pest management in agriculture. Efforts like Sikkim Organic Mission (SOM), National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP), Strengthening and Modernization of Pest. Management Approach (SMPMA), National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), PKVY, and ZBNF support their use in India. While subsidies for conventional pesticides hinder biopesticide research, recent bans on toxic chemicals have boosted biopesticide development. Government policies, entrepreneurial support, and designated no-pesticide zones can promote biopesticide production. Initiatives like SOM and NPOP have led to organic farming growth. The Organic Farming Policy recognizes biopesticides as inputs. NABARD’s SMPMA program offers financial aid for bio-fertilizer/bio-pesticide units. NMSA focuses on biopesticide research and commercialization. PKVY and SHM support organic farming, and the government has taken steps to promote biopesticide use. Zero budget natural farming (ZBNF) minimizes costly inputs and promotes biopesticides for organic farming.

Currently, there are 361 bio-production units, including 141 in the private sector without government grants and 38 with government aid. Additionally, 35 IPM centers have received support from the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare since 2010. State Biocontrol Laboratories were established in various states, and institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research sponsored Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK), State Government sponsored state biocontrol labs, and National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED) produce microbial pesticides. Public sectors contribute 70% of biopesticide production in India. As of January 1, 2021, India had 970 registered biopesticides under the 1968 Insecticide Act [12]. Government regulations and the adverse effects of chemical pesticides are driving the adoption of environmentally friendly measures like microbial biopesticides in agriculture, both globally and in India.

12. Conclusion

Biopesticides are becoming increasingly popular as a sustainable and effective solution for managing pests and diseases in vegetable farming. Due to their natural origin, low environmental impact, and compatibility with organic practices, they are the preferred choice for many growers. By using biopesticides, growers can effectively control pests while minimizing the use of chemicals on vegetables, thus ensuring superior food safety and quality.

Biopesticides have enormous potential in vegetable farming to create more efficient, sustainable, and environmentally friendly agricultural practices. Despite challenges such as pest resistance and regulatory complexities, careful integration into integrated pest management (IPM) strategies can overcome these obstacles. With ongoing research and the development of innovative formulations like nano-biopesticides, the future of biopesticide use in vegetable farming looks bright. Growers can confidently look forward to healthier crops, safer food, and more sustainable farming practices.