Fungal Biodiversity in Ethiopia: Distribution, Threats and Prospects

Abstract

Fungi are an integral part of the natural world, playing important roles in ecological processes and having considerable potential for use in diverse industries. Despite the rich fungal diversity in Ethiopia, limited information exists regarding their distribution, threats, and conservation efforts. Even, fungi are not included in the biodiversity database of the country. This chapter provides a synthesis of information gathered from different sources to understand fungal biodiversity, focusing on the distributions, threats to and conservation of fungal species across various land uses and sites in Ethiopia. The fungal biodiversity in the country is extensive, encompassing a wide range of fungal species. However, fungi in Ethiopia are threatened by multiple factors, including land use/land cover changes, deforestation, habitat degradation, the expansion of invasive plant species, and climate change. This leads to effective conservation and management of biodiversity to ensure their sustainable use, thus enhancing the resilience and productivity of habitats, different ecosystems, and mycological resources. To this end, this chapter will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and help in the formulation of strategies for sustainable management of fungal biodiversity.

1. Introduction

Fungi constitute one of the most diverse groups of organisms on Earth, second only to insects in terms of diversity [1]. Fungi play crucial roles in ecosystems as decomposers, symbionts with animals and plants, and parasites, thus enabling life on Earth [2]. Mushrooms, which are seasonal fungi, occupy diverse niches in forest ecosystems and are vital to all ecosystems [3, 4]. Understanding their ecological distribution is essential for effective conservation and sustainable management strategies.

According to the latest estimates, the total number of fungal species worldwide is believed to be between 2.2 million and 3.8 million [5]. However, only approximately 148,000 species have been formally described and named. This vast discrepancy highlights the immense diversity of fungi and the significant number of species yet to be discovered and classified. The estimates continue to evolve as new species are discovered and as molecular techniques improve our understanding of fungal biodiversity. Several mycologists have attempted to answer the question of “Where are the missing fungi?” by identifying the habitats that are to be studied for the presence of such fungi [6].

Forests are among the most promising habitats for exploring these “missing” fungi. They serve as vital reservoirs of biodiversity, housing a myriad of plant and animal species crucial for ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Among these diverse organisms, fungi stand out as a significant component of forest ecosystems, playing key roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition processes, and symbiotic relationships with other organisms.

Given the global importance of forests for fungal biodiversity, Ethiopia is particularly significant due to its rich and diverse vegetation resources that range from lowland scrubs to tropical rainforests [7]. These diverse forest types provide a unique opportunity to study a wide array of fungal species, each contributing uniquely to the ecological tapestry of the region. Moreover, Ethiopia’s forests are under various threats, including deforestation and climate change, making the understanding and conservation of fungal biodiversity even more critical.

To address these concerns, this chapter provides a synthesis of information to understand fungal biodiversity in Ethiopia, focusing on fungal distributions, threats to and conservation of fungal species across various land uses and sites. Information about the distribution and diversity of fungi, threats and prospects will lead to effective management of biodiversity and ensure their sustainable use, thus enhancing the resilience and productivity of Ethiopia’s forest ecosystems and mycological resources.

2. Methodology

Our methodology involves collecting and analyzing available literature, research reports, and datasets related to fungal diversity in natural and plantation forests in Ethiopia. We performed a systematic literature review of scientific databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science using relevant keywords such as “fungi” and paired search terms such as “fungal threats in Ethiopia” and “fungal distribution in Ethiopia” to identify articles and studies related to the topic of interest, as described in previous studies [8]. A total of 150 articles were downloaded for this study. After a thorough review and evaluation of their relevance and quality, 63 of these articles were selected and utilized as the main sources. These selected articles provided the foundational information and critical insights necessary for synthesizing the content of this chapter. Then, in this chapter, we synthesize existing data and information to provide a comprehensive overview of fungal diversity within various forest systems across Ethiopia. For example, in southern Ethiopia, studies have focused on the diversity and succession of fungal communities in Pinus patula [9, 10] and Eucalyptus grandis plantations [11, 12], as well as their response to stand development and fire occurrences [10, 13]. Notable studies include investigations into soil fungal communities in various aged plantations and the richness and diversity of macrofungi in natural forests and plantations in Dagaga and Gambo natural and plantation forests [14]. Research in northern Ethiopia has explored macrofungal diversity and the influence of edaphic factors on fungal communities in church forests in Dry Afromontane areas [15], with additional studies utilizing metabarcoding to aid conservation efforts [16]. In northwestern Ethiopia, studies have primarily concentrated on Termitomyces species, including morphological and molecular analyses [17] and ethnomycological surveys of edible and medicinal mushrooms in the Menge District [18]. In the central highlands of Ethiopia, research has highlighted the impact of forest type and site conditions on the diversity and biomass of edible macrofungal species [19], with specific studies emphasizing the retention of mature trees in Pinus radiata plantations to conserve fungal diversity [20] and documenting new records of Agaricus species [21]. These regional studies and the synthesis of previous research provide valuable insights into the current understanding of fungal biodiversity across varied landscapes in Ethiopia.

3. Fungal biodiversity in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a wide range of ecological, climatic, and geographical conditions, including highlands, lowlands, and various forest types, which are known to support high biodiversity levels [22]. The country’s rich plant, animal, and microbial genetic resource diversity, along with its ecosystem variability, requires serious protection, conservation, and management to derive sustainable benefits for present and future generations. Although Ethiopia is home to a diverse range of fungal species [23, 24, 25], many of these species remain unidentified or undiscovered.

Our extensive research over the years has meticulously analyzed the fungal diversity and composition in natural forests, particularly fragmented church forests, and plantations in Ethiopia, which are primarily dominated by pines and eucalyptus. The findings from our studies on fruiting bodies highlight the significant ecological richness in natural forests, where we identified up to 188 distinct taxa [15]. Remarkably, 81% of these taxa are saprotrophic fungi that play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter, while 14% are ECM (ectomycorrhizal) fungi [15], which form beneficial symbiotic relationships with tree roots. Another study revealed a total of 61 fungal taxa belonging to the Basidiomycota division [26]. This diversity underscores the ecological complexity and resilience of natural forest ecosystems. Conversely, plantations exhibited a substantially lower number of taxa, with 53 in pine forests and 29 in eucalyptus plantations [12]. Despite this reduced diversity, pine plantations contained 36% edible species, highlighting their potential for sustainable foraging and local food resources. Additionally, by analyzing the soil fungal communities, the results provide profound ecological insights into the fungal diversity within natural forests and plantations dominated by dominant pine and eucalyptus species. In fragmented natural forests, we observed 2898 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), with 52% belonging to Ascomycota and 20% to Basidiomycota, the two primary phyla [13]. Similarly, in pine-dominated forest stands, 2262 OTUs were identified [9], while Eucalyptus forests hosted 2886 OTUs, with 47% being saprotrophs and 15% being ECM fungi, the predominant guilds [11]. These findings underscore the remarkable diversity present within Ethiopian forest ecosystems. The high number of OTUs and the prevalence of diverse fungal phyla and guilds highlight the ecological complexity and richness of these ecosystems. Furthermore, the dominance of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota underscores their fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning. The prevalence of saprotrophs and ECM fungi indicates their crucial functions in organic matter decomposition and nutrient exchange with host plants, contributing to ecosystem stability and resilience.

These findings underscore the importance of conserving natural forests due to their rich fungal diversity while also revealing the ecological value of plantation forests in supporting specific fungal communities. Information on fungal distribution across various forest types and land uses enhances our understanding of fungal biodiversity and ecological dynamics across varied landscapes [3, 25]. This understanding is crucial for the careful consideration of unique and shared species across different forest types, ensuring the sustainable use and conservation of fungal biodiversity in Ethiopia’s diverse forest ecosystems.

3.1 Edible fungal species in Ethiopia

After obtaining a general understanding of fungal diversity in Ethiopian forests, we also performed a comprehensive evaluation of wild edible mushroom resources. Our study aimed to address two key objectives: first, to document the fresh weight of edible wild mushrooms harvested from the natural and plantation forests in Ethiopia. Second, to construct predictive models for sporocarp production in these distinct forest systems. We found a total of 64 edible fungal species. Notably, the average annual total fresh weight production in plantations (2097.57 kg ha⁻¹) significantly exceeded that in natural forests (731.18 kg ha⁻¹) [19]. As a result, we developed yield classification models to provide a framework for predicting the annual yields of edible fungi based on Ethiopia’s specific climatic, soil, and geographical characteristics [27]. These models represent a foundational tool for guiding future research endeavors in Ethiopian forests, facilitating the optimization of forest management strategies centered around NTFPs, particularly edible wild mushrooms.

Mushrooms in Ethiopia can be found in diverse ecological zones, such as highlands, lowlands, and forested areas. Nevertheless, the diversity of Ethiopian mushrooms has not been thoroughly studied or documented across all ecosystems to date [25]. The highlands of Ethiopia are home to several edible mushrooms, including Pleurotus ostreatus, Termitomyces microcarpus, and Ramaria sp. The hot and dry climate of the Rift Valley provides suitable conditions for growing a variety of mushroom species, such as Termitomyces sp. and Auricularia sp. Some other appreciated mushroom species include Boletus sp., Lactarius sp., and Ganoderma sp. Figure 1 illustrates some of the most commonly found mushroom species in Ethiopia [14, 23].

Figure 1.

Photographic representation of 17 selected mushroom species recorded in Ethiopia. The images labeled A to Q correspond to the following species: (A) Agaricus campestroides, (B) Agaricus subedulis, (C) Agrocybe pediades, (D) Armillaria heimii, (E) Calvatia rubroflava, (F) Coprinellus domesticus, (G) Coprinopsis nivea, (H) Coprinus pseudoplicatilis, (I) Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca, (J) Hymenagaricus fuscobrunneus, (K) Leucoagaricus holosericeus, (L) Leucoagaricus leucothites, (M) Leucoagaricus rubrotinctus, (N) Leucocoprinus birnbaumii, (O) Leucocoprinus cepistipes, (P) Lycoperdon perlatum, and (Q) Tylopilus niger.

The diversity and distribution of mushrooms are significantly influenced by a range of ecological and environmental variables. These factors include forest type, altitudinal gradients, soil characteristics, vegetation cover, interactions with other organisms, and specific temperature and humidity requirements, among others, as detailed below:

Forest type: Different types of forests, such as tropical rainforests, montane forests, and dry forests, harbor distinct fungal communities due to variations in temperature, humidity, and vegetation composition (Figure 2). Fungi exhibit preferences for specific habitat niches within different forest types [28, 29, 30], influencing their distribution and abundance. Forest type acts as a broad-scale determinant, delineating the overarching environmental conditions that govern fungal community composition [31, 32].

Figure 2.

The wealth of Ethiopian Dry Afromontane forests harboring diverse fungal resources. This figure illustrates the rich fungal biodiversity found within these unique forest ecosystems, highlighting the ecological significance of diverse fungal species.

Altitude: Altitudinal gradients in mountainous regions of Ethiopia create diverse microclimates, impacting fungal diversity. Fungal communities often exhibit altitudinal zonation patterns, with species richness and composition changing with elevation [33]. Altitudinal gradients further contribute to fungal diversity, with each elevational band presenting unique climatic conditions and ecological niches. In the Ethiopian highlands, montane forests exhibit distinct fungal communities at different elevations, ranging from montane forests at higher altitudes to subalpine vegetation at lower elevations.

Soil characteristics: Soil properties, including pH, texture, organic matter content, and nutrient availability, shape fungal communities. Different fungal species exhibit specific adaptations to soil conditions, influencing their distribution across various soil types [16, 27]. Soil characteristics exert profound influences on fungal distribution, reflecting the intricate interactions between fungi and their substrates. The acidic soils prevalent in some Ethiopian forests favor acidophilic fungal species, while nutrient-rich soils support diverse decomposer communities involved in organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling. One of the primary factors that influences sporocarp production in fungi is the availability of nutrients [34, 35]. Fungi require specific nutrients to grow and reproduce, and the availability of these nutrients can vary depending on the ecological niche of the fungus. For example, some fungi require specific types of organic matter, such as dead wood or leaf litter, to produce sporocarps. Other fungi may require specific types of soil or certain microorganisms to produce sporocarps.

Vegetation cover: The composition and structure of vegetation influence fungal diversity by providing habitat, organic matter, and niche diversity. Fungal communities exhibit associations with specific plant species, forming symbiotic relationships or engaging in decomposition processes [30, 36, 37]. Moreover, vegetation cover acts as a key determinant of fungal diversity by providing habitat and resources for fungal growth and reproduction. Forest structure, canopy cover, and plant species composition influence the microclimatic conditions and organic inputs available to fungi, shaping community composition and functional roles.

Relationships with other organisms: Another factor that can influence sporocarp production in fungi is the presence of other organisms in the ecosystem. Fungi often interact with other organisms, such as plants and animals, in complex ways. These interactions can affect the availability of resources for fungi and can also influence the distribution and abundance of fungal species. For example, some fungi may form mutualistic relationships with plants [38, 39, 40], where fungi provide nutrients to plants in exchange for carbohydrates. In these cases, the presence of the plant can influence the production of sporocarps by the fungus.

Temperature and humidity: These are also important factors that can influence sporocarp production in fungi [41]. Different fungal species have different temperature and humidity requirements, and these requirements can vary depending on the ecological niche of the fungus. For example, some fungi may require high humidity levels to produce sporocarps, while others may require lower humidity levels [42].

3.2 Ethnomycology of mushrooms in Ethiopia

Globally, ethnomycology has emerged as a significant field of study [43, 44]. This knowledge is a crucial aspect of many communities’ identities. Preserving information about the use of wild mushrooms, their linguistic terms, and harvesting methods is crucial to prevent their loss due to modernization and dominant cultures. Documenting this knowledge can promote the revaluation and conservation of wild mushroom species. Revitalizing the knowledge and nomenclature of useful species and encouraging their use could enhance the contribution of wild mushrooms to food security, particularly in Ethiopia, where food security is a national concern.

In many societies, mushrooms serve multiple purposes: they are used as food, medicine, enzymes, and other industrial substances [18, 43, 45]. Additionally, mushrooms hold recreational value and are significant in the myths and beliefs of various cultures [46]. As a nutritious substitute for meat and fish, mushrooms are rich in proteins, vitamins, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and minerals [43, 46, 47]. Locals frequently collect these valuable NTFPs, which help them avoid poverty and sustain their livelihoods [43, 46, 48]. Mushrooms are part of life in their wild form for food, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Image (A) illustrates the culinary versatility of mushrooms, showcasing their preparation and final presentation as a dish. Image (B) shows local community members engaging in communal mushroom foraging, emphasizing the social and economic significance of mushrooms.

One of our previous studies [49] aimed to provide baseline information about the ethnomycology of various ethnic groups in Ethiopia. These groups, which are located in the same geographic region, interact with the same natural resources and possess similar knowledge of wild mushrooms. This similarity stems from their cultural exchanges, coexistence, and shared historical events. Many respondents reported that although they do not consume mushrooms themselves, their parents or grandparents do, indicating that mycological knowledge is at risk of being lost among these groups [49]. In contrast, wild mushroom consumption remains an integral part of cultural knowledge regarding seasonal resources in some southern communities. Therefore, further study of traditional food compositions and recipes is necessary to determine the potential nutritional and food security benefits of wild mushrooms for these communities. In areas where mushrooms are commonly used, women primarily gather and collect valuable wild mushrooms, highlighting that gender significantly influences local knowledge and the distribution of wild mushrooms [18, 49]. This has implications for women’s contributions to household food security through the use of locally available food resources, such as fungi. Thus, fungi could provide supplementary food, reduce poverty, and offer opportunities for women in unfavorable areas, thereby reducing inequality.

4. Threats of fungal species in Ethiopia

Wild mushrooms in Ethiopia face threats without adequate scientific documentation due to factors such as deforestation, forest degradation, land use and land cover changes, climate change, invasive species, and a lack of awareness and conservation efforts. Some of these threats are discussed below.

Deforestation: The loss of forested areas due to agriculture, mining, and other human activities has led to a decline in the natural habitats of mushrooms [50]. This has made it difficult for some species of mushrooms to thrive. Deforestation is a severe threat to mushroom species in Ethiopia because it destroys the natural habitats of many mushrooms [2]. The forests in Ethiopia have diverse ecological niches that support the growth of mushrooms, providing suitable living conditions for many species. When these habitats are destroyed through deforestation, the fungal populations residing in them are also impacted. Figure 4 illustrates that large-scale tree harvesting for commercial purposes poses a threat to mushroom resources. Deforestation reduces the number of trees and reduces environmental humidity levels, making it challenging for different mushroom species to survive. Additionally, deforestation often leads to soil erosion and nutrient depletion, making the remaining soil inhospitable to fungi and other organisms. Reduced forest cover often results in more drastic fluctuations in temperatures that drive some mushroom species away from their suitable habitats. Thus, disrupted ecosystems and a lack of fungal interactions due to deforestation can also contribute to further disruption of forest biodiversity. Thus, deforestation deprives many mushroom species of vital habitat and threatens their continued existence in Ethiopia. Protecting these ecosystems is necessary to conserve their biodiversity and the important roles these mushrooms play in the ecosystem.

Figure 4.

Large-scale tree harvesting for commercial purposes poses a threat to mushroom resources. The photo illustrates the extensive logging activities that led to habitat loss and degradation, impacting the diversity and abundance of fungal species.

Land degradation: Soil erosion and poor land use practices have also contributed to the loss of suitable habitats for mushrooms. Land degradation is a significant threat to mushroom species in Ethiopia [51]. The loss of soil fertility, erosion, and changes in the physical properties of the soil due to human activities subject mushroom populations to different stress types. These factors modify soil conditions, disrupt natural cycles, and prevent mushroom species from growing healthily. Land degradation is often caused by unsustainable land use practices, such as overgrazing, land conversion, and widespread agricultural practices. For instance, land clearing for agriculture can lead to soil erosion, leaving exposed land that is unsuitable for the growth of edible or medicinal mushrooms. Overgrazing can also cause the soil to be more compact and stripped of nutrients. Soil damage caused by these activities can lead to a change in habitat, making it unsuitable for mushroom species to grow in such an environment [52]. The loss of soil moisture and nutrients, for example, deprives plants of the basic resources needed to survive and produce underground fruiting bodies of mushroom species. Fungal population reduction also leads to reduced decomposition rates of natural organic matter, thereby greatly impacting the habitat’s carbon cycle [53]. Moreover, land degradation has a profound impact on the natural habitats of mushroom species, making it difficult for them to survive, reproduce, and support other organisms in the ecosystem. Sustainable land use practices and conservation efforts are necessary to prevent changes in soil conditions from degrading natural habitats that support the growth of mushroom species in Ethiopia.

Overgrazing: Uncontrolled grazing by livestock can damage the soil and reduce the number of edible mushrooms available. Overgrazing is a significant threat to mushroom species in Ethiopia [54]. Overgrazing occurs when too many animals, such as goats, sheep, or cattle, graze on a particular piece of land, causing soil compaction, changes in soil structure, and a reduction in soil moisture. This can have several adverse effects on the growth and development of mushrooms. Overgrazing causes soil compaction, tilting the soil microbiota, and limiting air movement, reducing the soil’s ability to hold water, which is necessary to support the growth of mushrooms. This results in a change in soil conditions that affects mushroom habitats and restricts their ability to colonize specific soils. Mushrooms have a symbiotic relationship with plants, where they form connections with roots to exchange nutrients [55]. Overgrazing leads to a reduced availability of plant biomass inside the soil, leading to a decrease in belowground biomass and a decrease in fungal populations [56]. Overgrazing also leads to a reduction in vegetative cover, resulting in increased soil exposure to rain and leading to soil erosion. This exposes the soil to harsh environmental conditions and encourages the spread of invasive plant species that may negatively impact native mushroom populations through competition, habitat destruction potential, and changes in the soil microclimate [57]. Moreover, overgrazing impacts the physical characteristics of the soil and the relationships between mushrooms and host plants and changes the soil microbiota, thus threatening mushroom species diversity and populations and potentially affecting overall ecosystem sustainability in Ethiopia.

Climate change: Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can have a negative impact on mushroom growth and reproduction. Changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and water availability can negatively impact the growth and reproduction of mushrooms in several ways. Temperature changes can alter the timing of fruiting body formation, affect fruiting body quality, and make areas unsuitable for some mushroom species. A shifting temperature gradient and moisture can destroy suitable habitats, forcing some species to migrate to cooler climates and restricting the growth of heat-sensitive species [58]. Changes in rainfall patterns can affect the timing of mushroom fruiting, prohibit or promote the growth of some species, and lead to increased competition with other species [59]. Extended dry seasons resulting from erratic rain patterns affect fruiting body development and may lead to a reduction in water availability in the area, which is essential for the growth of many mushroom species. Furthermore, changes in the availability of water in the ecosystem, leading to localized drought or flooding, can affect fruiting body maturity rates. Climate change can also increase the growth of molds, which compete with other beneficial microbial organisms, such as mycorrhizae, for resources and damage fruiting bodies [60]. The changing ecology could promote the invasion of fungal pathogens, leading to a decrease in specialized mushroom species populations and biodiversity. Generally, climate change threatens mushroom species in Ethiopia by altering their habitat, leading to changes in their growth patterns and fruiting habits, and can cause the invasion of harmful fungi, posing significant challenges to ecosystem maintenance and their esthetic importance. Therefore, addressing these threats requires integrated approaches, including public awareness campaigns.

5. Conservation and sustainable forest management measures

5.1 Habitat conservation

Identifying and preserving these diverse habitats is crucial for promoting the conservation of mushrooms and their economic potential in Ethiopia. Therefore, the conservation and sustainable use of forest systems are essential for preserving fungal diversity and promoting ecosystem health in Ethiopian forests. Habitat conservation initiatives, such as protected areas and conservation reserves, provide vital refuges for fungal species, protecting them from habitat destruction and degradation.

To achieve sustainable forest management and prevent deforestation, the implementation of several key strategies is crucial. First, it is crucial to promote reforestation by actively planting native tree species to restore degraded areas. Additionally, it is essential to strengthen and enforce laws against illegal logging and land conversion. Supporting the rights of local communities and indigenous peoples, allowing them to manage and protect their forests, is also vital. Encouraging sustainable logging practices and certifying timber products ensures that forest exploitation does not compromise the ecosystem. Utilizing technology, such as satellite imagery, to monitor forest health and illegal activities enhances surveillance and control. Finally, raising public awareness about the importance of forests and sustainable practices is vital to ensuring community support and participation in these efforts.

To prevent soil degradation, especially in areas near lakes and water bodies, it is essential to recognize the crucial role that forests play. In these regions, trees and plants act as natural barriers that prevent erosion and maintain water quality. An effective strategy is to use mycorrhizal fungi in plantation plants. These fungi not only help plants adapt to poor soils, enhancing their resistance and growth but also provide a food resource and an intermediate source of income for rural populations. By incorporating these techniques, sustainable forest management can be promoted to protect the natural environment and enhance the economic well-being of local communities while ensuring the preservation of nearby aquatic ecosystems.

The importance of preventing overgrazing cannot be overstated, as it can lead to the removal of vegetation, which in turn can cause severe erosion, as previously noted. When vegetation is stripped away, the soil loses its protective cover, making it vulnerable to wind and water erosion. This not only depletes the soil of essential nutrients but also leads to the loss of biodiversity, including vital mycological resources, including appreciated edible mushroom species. The disappearance of fungi that form symbiotic relationships with plants can further degrade the ecosystem, as these fungi are crucial for nutrient cycling and soil health. To combat overgrazing, several measures can be designed and implemented. First, rotational grazing can be introduced, where livestock are moved between pastures to allow vegetation in previously grazed areas to recover. Second, setting up controlled grazing systems with designated grazing periods and rest periods for the land can help maintain vegetation cover. Third, planting cover crops and introducing forage species that are resilient to grazing pressure can help protect the soil. Additionally, implementing buffer zones around sensitive areas, such as water bodies, can prevent livestock from overgrazing these critical zones. Providing alternative feed sources during dry seasons or periods of low vegetation growth can also reduce the pressure on natural pastures. Educating farmers and herders about sustainable grazing practices and the long-term benefits of maintaining healthy ecosystems is essential. Government policies and incentives that support sustainable livestock management can further reinforce these practices. By taking these steps, we can protect vegetation, preserve biodiversity, and maintain the mycological resources necessary for a resilient and productive ecosystem.

To promote sustainable forest management that preserves fungal communities in the face of climate change, it is essential to adopt several strategies. Encouraging mycosilviculture, which integrates fungal cultivation into forestry practices, can enhance ecosystem resilience and biodiversity. Adapting forest density to changing climate conditions is crucial; reducing tree density can decrease stress on individual trees, decreasing their susceptibility to pests and diseases. This approach helps prevent tree mortality and the subsequent loss of associated resources, both timber and NTFPS, including economically and ecologically important mushrooms. Forest managers should prioritize mixed-species plantations and maintain diverse tree ages and sizes to create robust ecosystems. Additionally, implementing measures, such as controlled burns and thinning, can reduce competition for water and nutrients, further supporting tree health. Protecting and promoting fungal diversity through conservation efforts and habitat preservation is also vital, as fungi play a key role in nutrient cycling and soil health. Education and collaboration with local communities can ensure that sustainable practices are widely adopted, benefiting both the environment and the economy. By taking these steps, we can create forest ecosystems that are more resilient to climate change and continue to support valuable fungal communities.

Finally, the conservation of mushrooms through sustainable harvesting, farming, and management practices is essential to preserve their contribution to the environment and the economy. Ethiopia boasts a significant number of untapped wild mushrooms that are valuable sources of nutritional and medicinal value [61]. Research on the identification and preservation of these mushrooms, as illustrated in Figure 5, can contribute significantly to sustainable forest management and the conservation of mycological resources, avoiding overexploitation of this appreciated resource [9, 18, 49, 62]. As indicated in Figure 6, education and awareness-raising training on the importance of mushrooms and sustainable mushroom farming practices are essential for promoting their conservation and utilization [63].

Figure 5.

Comprehensive studies of soil fungal community composition as a tool for sustainable conservation management. The photos depict various stages of research and field soil sampling, illustrating how these studies can inform effective management plans for preserving both forest and mycological resources within forest ecosystems.

Figure 6.

A senior mycologist, coauthor of this work, educates youths about mushrooms and environmental education. The photo captures an engaging session where young learners are introduced to mushrooms and the importance of environmental stewardship.

6. Conclusion, implications, and future research directions

This chapter provides a comprehensive synthesis of the current state distribution and diversity of fungal species, the threats they face, and prospects for their conservation across various land uses (mainly forest stands) and sites in Ethiopia. The results revealed a substantial diversity of fungal resources in Ethiopia. A high proportion of these edible species were found, which underscores the potential of Ethiopian forests as a source of wild edible mushrooms. However, it also highlights the need for careful management to ensure the sustainable use and conservation of these valuable resources. Considering their ecological roles (guilds), saprotrophic fungi were the dominant fungi, indicating their crucial role in nutrient cycling and decomposition processes within these forest ecosystems. The presence of ectomycorrhizal fungi further emphasizes the importance of symbiotic relationships in maintaining forest health and productivity.

As land use, land cover changes, deforestation, and climate change pose threats to the conservation of fungal diversity and their ecological functions, effective conservation strategies are essential. Understanding the distribution and ecological roles of fungi is crucial for developing these strategies. By identifying key fungal species and their habitats, management efforts can focus on protecting the most vulnerable and ecologically significant fungi, promoting the sustainable use of fungal resources in the country.

Overall, the implications of this study extend beyond academia to inform policy, practice, and public awareness efforts aimed at conserving fungal diversity and promoting sustainable forest management in Ethiopia (Figure 7). Therefore, it is important to take a multidisciplinary approach to fungal biodiversity, incorporating diverse perspectives to ensure the preservation and prosperity of this valuable resource for the benefit of both ecosystems and human communities. Future research should focus on further exploring unexplored habitats and utilizing advanced molecular techniques to uncover the hidden diversity of fungi. Continued efforts in fungal taxonomy, ecology, and conservation will enhance our understanding and contribute to the sustainable management of forest ecosystems.

Figure 7.

The image shows training sessions, demonstrating common mushroom species for awareness creation among selected women’s groups about ethnomycological knowledge on the use and conservation of mushrooms.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.