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It is becoming increasingly clear that human activities lead to rapid changes in the environment which bring about ecosystem impairments that have direct health impacts involving water such as floods, water shortage, drought, and increased exposure to pollution. Although water constitutes 70% of the earth and we cannot add to the world’s water, many natural water sources have become sinks for contaminants. In many developing nations, these waterbodies are a vital source of water for drinking, household, and other purposes but have become a thriving habitat for waterborne pathogens causing diseases in animals and humans. Proper water quality monitoring strategies are required to protect ecosystem services, preserve biodiversity, and improve the sustainability of water resources.
Federal College of Animal and Production Technology, Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
Oluwatisheyitoju Iji
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
*Address all correspondence to: fikemi@yahoo.com
1. Introduction
Water is the essence of life. It exists as the only common substance that is naturally found as either a solid, liquid, or gas. The presence of water is regarded as the ultimate proof of existence, making it evidentially essential for survival and its dependence crucial for all life forms. Although it is considered a simple molecule composed of two small positively charged hydrogen atoms and one large negatively charged oxygen atom, its many roles in supporting life can be attributed to its molecular structure and other special properties.
Water is the most studied chemical compound [1]. It is a polar inorganic compound, liquid at room temperature; tasteless, colorless, and odorless. Water is the Earth’s most abundant substance and the universe’s third most abundant molecule (behind molecular hydrogen and carbon monoxide) [2]. At freezing point, water is 0 and 100°C at boiling point. Water is amphoteric; exhibiting both properties of an acid or a base, depending on the pH of the solution it is in; by readily producing both H+ and OH−ions. It also undergoes self-ionization [3].
1.1 The biological uses of water
Water is a universal solvent [4]. This ability makes water such an invaluable life-sustaining force. Substances that mix and dissolve well in water are hydrophilic (“water-loving”), while those that do not mix well with water are known as hydrophobic (“water-fearing”) [5]. Water makes up 60–75% of the human body weight, this is critical for cellular homeostasis and life [6]. It helps the body regulate internal temperature by distributing heat throughout the body and cooling it through perspiration (sweat), keeping its temperature within a normal range [7]. It gives protection to joints, the spinal cord, and other tissues. It moistens the mouth as saliva, and the eyes as tears, cushions and lubricates the joints as synovial fluid, and prevents injuries by boosting tissue flexibility and elasticity [8]. More importantly, the blood is a water-based mixture without which the transport of nutrients, oxygen, and waste cannot reach their targets in the body.
Humans rely on plants as food sources. Plants are also inextricably dependent on water for their survival. About 95% of plant tissue comprises water, an essential nutrient for plant growth. Water is critical for a seed to sprout, plants to grow, and transporting nutrients and other important functions within the plant tissues. Water is necessary for photosynthesis, which is how plants use sun, carbon dioxide, and water energy to create food that we and other animals can eat for energy [9], and other important functions within the plant tissues such as cell structural support and turgor.
1.2 The role of water in health
This role is generally defined relative to the ideal hydrated state i.e., correlated with dehydration. There is a need for the water provision in the body to be sufficient to overcome water loss, which is achieved via withholding of fluids over time and during periods of heat stress or high activity. We get water not only directly as a beverage but also from food and water proportion from these sources varies with our diet [10] (fruits and vegetables have high water content). The different types of water are soft or hard, spring or well, carbonated or distilled water.
Dehydration is a deficiency of water in the body [11]. The body constantly loses water throughout the day through urinating, sweating, and breathing [12] which may become more pronounced on hot days with profuse sweating or when sick with fever, diarrhea, or vomiting or taking medications such as diuretics which can increase the frequency of urination, or in people who flat out do not take enough water. Dehydration may be fatal when not treated immediately. It can impact cognition resulting in loss of concentration, alertness, and short-term memory in children and adults [13, 14] or even delirium presenting dementia in elderly people [15].
Gastrointestinal functions are affected by dehydration. The amount of water influences the gastric emptying rate and constipation, characterized by slow gastrointestinal transit, and difficulty in passing stool [16, 17]. The kidneys, heart, and hemodynamic functions are all affected by dehydration and may serve as precursors for chronic diseases [18].
Water is a finite resource essential for life, it has no adequate alternative. One of the major challenges of our society is the supply and allocation of water in sufficient quality and quantity. Although we cannot add to the world’s water, water is always moving, thanks to the water cycle, the assurance of water availability for all living organisms remains a possibility. About 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water, this covers 1386 million cubic kilometers [19] and mostly occurs as oceans and large water bodies, groundwater, water vapor, and ice [20]. The statistics show that 97% of the world’s water is saltwater and not drinkable, only 3% of this water is fresh and drinkable, and 77% of which is frozen. Of the 23% that’s not frozen, just about 0.5% is available to supply every living organism with all the water they need to survive [21].
The Guide to the World Freshwater Resources [22] estimates that oceans, seas, and bays account for 96.54% of the world’s total water which spans a water volume of 1,338,000,000 cubic km. Ice caps, glaciers, and permanent snow are about 1.74% with a water volume of over 24 million cubic km, and 68.7% being freshwater. Rivers are 0.0002% of the total water and the water volume is 2120 cubic km, while freshwater is 0.76% with 10,530,000 cubic km of water in volume.
The water cycle shows the journey that water takes in different forms, moving around the earth. It is important to note that no new water is created in this process, and all of the Earth’s water is recycled, with limited amounts occurring as freshwater. With most of the Earth’s water in the ocean, the sun’s heat causes it to evaporate, forming water vapor. As the water vapor elevates, it becomes cooler and condenses to form liquid suspended in dust particles called clouds. When this mass of water molecules is full, it dispenses them as precipitation in the form of rain, snow, or ice, which then flows as run-off, combining to form creeks or streams that form rivers that feed the ocean, hence the basic water cycle.
A deeper understanding of the hydrologic cycle and the pressure points where anthropogenic activities are causing changes that can affect the sustainability of water resources should be the focus for possible mitigation (Figure 1).
Humans and animals benefit from ecosystem services provided and sustained by water which serves as a livewire of support for biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and human well-being [23]. There are benefits derived from this ecosystem, with some linked to the water cycle and the provision of portable water, others to infrastructure that helps manage floods, hydroelectric power, transportation cruises, and those that create opportunities for water-associated recreation and cultural practices [24]. Several factors such as population growth and global climate change drive the continued abuse of ecosystem services [25]. Placing priorities on providing services and maximizing profits in most instances rather than on the costs of the impacts of anthropogenic activities on ecosystem services places some strain on its functions.
There is a need for ecosystem services-based approaches in natural resources management practice to include climate change water-based adaptation strategies [25], river basin and catchment management [26], and Integrated Water Resources management [27] in the proper governance of natural resources management crucial to protecting water. With resulting mounting pressures from polluted waterways, depleting aquifers, and degrading wetlands unabating in the nearest future, and as the human population grows with increased economic activities thrown in the mix, society must begin to place optimal value on the management of the water-based ecosystem to nurture its guaranteed support for human life for current and future generations.
Ecosystem services are largely interdependent due to the interconnectedness that occurs through water use and impacts. The probability that a trade-off drives decisions is not uncommon, however, an in-depth understanding of how an entire range of ecosystem services (values, cost) can better improve the decision-making process in a way that’s meaningful, purposeful, critical, and balanced, resulting in enhanced overall ecosystem services improvement and optimal productivity remains a possibility [28].
3.1 Water: peace or conflict
It is imperative to note that a well-concerted and coordinated effort is needed to foster water management cooperation to avoid conflict and promote peace. With over 3 billion people worldwide depending on transboundary water, and fewer than 25 countries developing some form of cooperation agreement on their shared waters [29], clashes on water uses seem inevitable. This cooperation in water management can help with its distribution to accommodate everyone’s needs.
An estimated 40% of the world’s population lives in water-scarce areas, and up to 0.25% of the world’s GDP is threatened by water scarcity-related incidences [30]. The various aspects of human prosperity and public health, food and energy systems, and environmental integrity are anchored to functional and equitably managed water systems [29]. Many Farmer-herder conflicts in African countries like Nigeria and Senegal have been linked to water resources-associated issues either from access to water or water-shed land that grows pasture all year round. The frequency of incidences between these two groups is becoming more rampant and intense in severity [31] taking more lives than terrorism [32]. Half of more than the 15,000 deaths that occurred since 2018, happened in Nigeria [33].
The Nile waters for example are used for irrigation, hydroelectric power, fishing, tourism, etc. [34] Treats by Egypt to escalate tensions over its access by other Nile riparian states have necessitated the development of a framework for equitable distribution. Egypt maintains that a 2% drop in Nile water could result in 200,000 acres of irrigated land and any deprivation would be interpreted as provocation to war [35]. The competition between countries and among varying water-dependent sectors is such that it calls for proper water governance, especially as nations experience the effects of climate change, urbanization, industrialization, and political unrest. The United Nations World Water Day in 2024 calls for local actions to unite around the fair and sustainable use of water.
Some countries are classified as water-scarce countries and up to 1.2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water [36], with half the world’s population experiencing water scarcity during certain seasons in the year [37]. The World Wildlife Federation predicts that by 2025, two-thirds of humans may face water shortages with a population forecast of 9 billion, contributing to a 40% increase in water demand by 2030 [38]. With about 326 million trillion gallons of water on earth trapped in the air, as ice in the poles, in the oceans, or as underground aquifers, the quantity of access may depend on where you live. Kuwait is one of the poorest countries in terms of water per capita and Canada has over 10,000 times more (Figure 2) [39].
4. What’s in the water? Pollutants and contaminants
Water contamination is the presence of a substance that should not naturally or originally be present in water regardless of whether the substance is harmful or not. However, an increase in the presence of these contaminants, especially beyond their permissible limits, such that they can cause harm or negatively impact biological systems is called water pollution [40]. All pollutants are contaminants but not all contaminants are pollutants [41]. Water pollution contributes significantly to water scarcity, and since the dawn of industrialization, there has been an uptick in the rate of water pollution. Although water pollution may occur in nature through volcanic eruptions or evaporation, most problems stem from human actions on land.
Historically, ancient cultures combated water pollution from human waste by building aqueducts [42]. After the Second World War, the preponderance of industries and factories produced wastes indiscriminately dumped into rivers with little to no care about the environment or downstream end users, many of these were later labeled as dangerous to humans [43].
4.1 Sources of water pollutants
The sources of water pollution could either be direct or indirect. Direct water pollution arises when pollutants are directly released into water bodies such as rivers, lakes, groundwater, and streams. These effluents directly impact the water quality, such as from a factory or sewage treatment plant, this is the so-called “point source pollution”. The indirect source is also known as diffuse pollution. Its main sources are run-offs from farming, fossil fuel power plants, and the atmosphere via rainwater, affecting water supply from soils/groundwater systems [44]. These contaminants can be classified into organic, inorganic, radioactive, and acid/base.
Organic waste comes from sewage, urban wastewater, industrial wastewater, and agricultural waste and they are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur [45] The natural breakdown of crop residues and soil organic matter, fertilizers, urine, and manure into nutrients which become the principal cause of eutrophication, an enrichment that leads to increased plant growth and the occurrence of algae. Inorganic pollutants are usually persistent and could stem from industrial, agricultural, and residential sources. The substances range from heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and mercury to salts like phosphates, sulfates, and nitrates. Others are trace elements and mineral acids which affect aquatic flora and fauna.
Radioactive elements may cause water pollution when they leach from the earth’s crust, less common is the pollution of artificial radionuclides from nuclear power plants. Uranium, thorium, and actinium are three naturally occurring radioactive materials contaminating water resources [46]. Acids and alkalis in freshwater are harmful, with both extremes causing toxicity and killing fish. The chronic effect of increased acidity in surface waters appears to be interference with the fish’ reproductive cycle and the main pollutants responsible for acid deposition (or acid rain) are sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) [47].
4.2 Effects of water pollution on aquatic life and health
When untreated or inadequately treated water is released into natural water bodies, the degradation of the aquatic ecosystem occurs [48]. The aquatic flora and fauna are not spared from the effects of water pollution which causes a decline and serious economic loss.
The direct impacts are (a) Habitat destruction because the immediate aquatic ecosystem becomes affected. Some contaminants may promote the growth of fungi, bacteria, and algae, and the preponderance of algae or moss may impede the penetration of sunlight and other life-giving nutrients [49]. (b) Oxygen depletion which is a more insidious threat as all aquatic organisms depend on oxygen for survival and the absence of it due to water pollution, may create a dead zone that becomes a threat to fish and other biota [49].
The cascading effect of water pollution in the food chain is significant because other animals that rely on fish as their primary food source may become threatened or sick when they consume food contaminated with chemicals and plastics. (c) Physical harm to fish and other aquatic organisms may arise from contact with oil spills, acids, pesticides, etc. They may also ingest toxic substances which are harmful or cause death. The World Wildlife Fund reported that plastic pollution in oceans is responsible for the death of 100,000 marine animals each year [50]. Reports of fish die-offs resulting from cancer in animals living in polluted aquatic environments are a stark warning that we need to pay more attention to the negative impact of anthropogenic pollution and what gets dumped in our waters [51].
4.3 Effects of water pollution on human health
Human health has been under renewed threats arising from the pollution of water bodies from countless anthropogenic activities [52]. This scenario is exacerbated in developing countries where the environmental laws are obsolete or non-existent and the treatment facilities are ill-equipped, making them sink where different types of waste marinate [53], becoming a human health problem.
4.3.1 Sewage
One of the leading worldwide causes of disease and death is attributed to waterborne diseases. Infectious diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms account for 25% of human mortality [54] many of these are found in sewage. Sewage effluent entering surface and groundwater is usually laden with pathogenic organisms that transmit waterborne diseases [55]. Some common pathogens found in sewage are presented in Table 2.
Adenovirus Enteroviruses Poliovirus Hepatitis A and E Parvovirus, Coxsackieviruses
Respiratory disease and eye infections Gastroenteritis Fever, rash, respiratory and heart disease Paralysis, aseptic meningitis Infectious hepatitis Gastroenteritis Herpangina, aseptic meningitis, respiratory illness, fever, paralysis, respiratory, heart and kidney disease.
Table 2.
Microbial diseases associated with polluted aquatic environs.
Source: World Health Organization 2006; Christou, L. [56].
Enteric pathogens causing diarrhea account for 2 million deaths worldwide per year in children under 5 years [57]. About 250 million people globally become infected with waterborne pathogens and the mortality rate is between 10 and 20 million [58] thus, the primary goal of water management should be that people are not exposed to doses of pathogens that cause disease and other potential toxins in sewage. It is thus crucial to protect water sources and standardize water treatment programs through routine water quality monitoring.
4.3.2 Oil spills
Oil spills happen when liquid petroleum hydrocarbons are discharged into the environment, mainly water bodies due to human activity. This results from transportation accidents and industrial and mining activities, and it is the most frequent and arguably most voluminous single organic pollutant of the aquatic ecosystems [59]. These spills destroy habitats, such as mangroves or coral reefs, and cause marine animals to succumb to hypothermia, drowning, and smothering from the stickiness of the oil [60].
Humans who come in contact either directly or indirectly by inhalation or ingestion of contaminated seafood or drinking water show symptoms of dizziness and nausea, central nervous system involvement, and certain types of cancers [61]. Respiratory distress is also common due to the fire incidences associated with oil spills [62]. Due to the persistent nature of these hydrocarbons, they are difficult to clean up, and their impact lingers. A study of the human health implications of crude oil spills in the Niger Delta, Nigeria revealed that beyond the public health concerns, food security was also impacted and it likely contributed to a 24% increase in the prevalence of childhood malnutrition [63]. More must be done to deter oil spills (training, equipment, contingency plans, double-hulled tankers, and liability laws), and more importantly, monitoring because it is better and cheaper to prevent than fix.
4.3.3 Pesticides
Pesticides are usually applied to kill organisms such as weeds and insects. While they are useful in gardens, farmlands, and other public places they may end up in our water, adversely affecting the ecosystems and humans. Insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, garden chemicals, household disinfectants, and rodenticides that destroy and protect from pests are all considered pesticides [64]. There are different types of pesticides with varying uses listed in Table 3.
Exposure to pesticides could be both acute and chronic and both could be toxic to biological systems. The World Health Organization reported that annually [66], a million people are affected by acute pesticide poisoning with recorded fatalities being about 0.4–1.9%, most of which are work-related exposures [67]. Sub-chronic to chronic exposures to lower doses of pesticides have been implicated in tumor formation and central nervous system disorders [68]. There are over 2 million metric tons of pesticides in use (47.5% herbicides, 29.5% insecticides, 17.5% fungicides, and 5.5% other pesticides) the impact on water quality and associated environmental concern is mounting [69], and water contamination by pesticides aggravated by inadequate storing of agrochemicals which leach into ground and surface water [70].
Pesticide transfer is harmful to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, not only directly affecting fishes and other organisms but likewise impacting behavior; changing food habits, and deteriorating the quality of the habitat [71]. They also tend to bioaccumulate and bio-magnify [67] and the reaction to toxicity could vary from mild (contact dermatitis) to moderate and severe (hematological morbidity and pulmonary dysfunction, in addition to immune system deficiencies, inborn deformities, and cancers) [72].
5. Climate change and the threat to water resources
Climate change is mostly about water. When addressed in context it is about food security (agricultural output) or rising sea levels, melting arctic ice, wildfires, and extreme weather conditions (floods, drought), and that essentially is a story involving water.
It is expedient that we pay more attention to the changes in water supply, demand, and quality which is exacerbated by the climate change problem because climate change makes water shortages more likely for everyone and the impact on water resources affects the quantity, variability, timing, form, and intensity of rainfall [73].
5.1 Climate change and water cycle
Climate change exerts its impact on the water cycle shaping when, where, and how much rain falls. When global temperatures rise, water evaporates in larger quantities, which will lead to higher levels of atmospheric water vapor and subsequently more frequent, heavy, and intense precipitations. The water cycle controls and maintains the balance between precipitation, evaporation, and all of the steps in between. Higher the temperature, the higher the atmospheric capacity to hold water [74]. The increased evaporation may dry an area and cause excess rains in another. Likewise, a warmer winter temperature would bring about more precipitation as rain rather than snow, and the snow consequently melts earlier in the year affecting the timing of streamflow into the rivers.
Climate change-induced excessive rainfall usually affects water quality, especially by impacting the water infrastructure such as sewer systems and the water treatment plants which overflow due to the volume of water [74]. The rippling effects of increased precipitation present as increased runoffs and rising sea levels, washed sediments, stripped soil nutrients, and organic/inorganic waste dumps into natural and stored water aquifers [75]. Conversely, a decreased water supply may also impair water quality by causing nutrients and contaminants to concentrate thereby, worsening water quality standards. Another impact on nature with rising temperatures and altered precipitation is the susceptibility to wildfires, which pollute the atmosphere with CO2.
Similarly, increased evaporation rates worsen water supplies, especially during the dry seasons in tropical countries or summer in temperate regions. This leads to reduced soil moisture levels and agricultural drought. Climate change-linked drought continues to influence the management of water resources for users with corresponding economic consequences. In the USA, prolonged droughts have caused over $6 billion in damages to the agricultural and municipal sectors [76].
5.1.1 Statistics of some climate change-induced flooding
Climate change is responsible for the extreme weather events making water scarcer, more polluted, and unpredictable. The UN forecast that by 2050, 1.6 billion. People would be at risk of flood and up to 3.2 billion would live in potentially severely water-scarce areas [77].
Floods are the most common type of natural disaster in Europe. Extreme weather events like flash floods are expected to increase in frequency in Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands [78]. In EU countries between 1980 and 2021, floods caused more than €250 billion in losses, about 5600 deaths, and nearly 75% of those affected ended up with mental health issues [79]. In 2022, West and Central African regions experienced one of the worst flooding disasters spanning 20 countries, with over 8.5 million people affected; 1567 fatalities, 4401 injured, 3.2 million people displaced, and 517,000 houses destroyed across 18 countries. The flooding devastated 1.6 million hectares of farmland, putting the livelihoods of communities at risk [80].
The monsoon flooding in the South Asian countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka since 2020 has become the region’s deadliest flood with over 3700 people dead [81]. South American floods have been extensive, this year alone, 15,000 families were affected in Bolivia and 40 people were killed. Ecuador has experienced 821 weather-related events; flooding (62.97 percent), landslides (18.88 percent), and structural collapses (7.55 percent). About 11,300 people evacuated due to flooding in Brazil, and 100 districts in Peru were placed on emergency flooding alert [80].
The USA and Canada have experienced an increase in flash flood events and flood fatalities, many of which Flash flood-producing rains can also trigger catastrophic mudslides and a 10% increase by 2030 of people facing annual flood risk [82]. The aftermath of a “derecho” in May of this year, resulted in fatalities and over a million customers being without power for weeks [83].
5.1.2 Statistics of some climate change-induced drought
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) estimated that out of 1.84 billion people worldwide, living under drought in 2023, huge numbers resided in low- and middle-income countries [84]. Although drought does not get as much media coverage as it should, it remains a silent destructor arising from climate change events. Drought has been reported to affect both developed and developing countries, with consequences extending beyond the immediate lack of water, to communities and ecosystems, more disproportionately, vulnerable communities in the developing world.
Many continents have been experiencing excessive, abnormal heat. The year 2023 was the warmest year on record for North and South America, Africa, and globally, the second warmest year for Asia and Europe, and the eighth warmest year for Australia [85]. Women and children are said to be 14 times more likely to be killed by climate-fueled disasters than men, and drought is responsible for food insecurity in 23 million people across the Horn of Africa and forced migration [86, 87].
Statistics show that moderate-to-severe droughts are increasing in China by 15–20% [88], and 5% of the area of the contiguous United States suffer severe to extreme drought [89]. In 2022, Europe experienced its worst drought in 500 years, and should the average global temperatures rise 3°C above pre-industrial levels, 170 million: people are expected to experience extreme drought [90]. The extreme heat and dry conditions come with its ecological toil especially on the world’s largest forests, as massive wildfires ravaged the trees that serve as kinder due to the dryness.
Freshwater is a finite resource, so monitoring water quality is very important. Monitoring allows us to evaluate how seas, rivers, surface, and groundwater change. This information would allow us to analyze the change trends that then inform plans and strategies for improving water quality so that water in use meets its designated standards. Water quality monitoring is a fundamental tool in the management of freshwater resources.
USEPA [91] described the rationale behind monitoring water quality as to allow for the identification of changes or trends in water quality over time; identify specific existing or emerging water quality problems; use the information gathered to design pollution prevention or remediation programs and other pollution compliance regulations and also to be able to respond to emergencies, such as spills and floods.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) [92] defines monitoring as: “the programmed process of sampling, measurement and subsequent recording or signaling, or both, of various water characteristics, often to assess conformity to specified objectives” which could be long-term, short-term, and continuous monitoring. It is almost impossible to determine every possible contaminant in water at every particular time per time, therefore a combination of analyses that involve physicochemical analysis and biological assays are conducted to give information on the condition of the water.
Several parameters can be determined in water samples. Water temperature, turbidity, pH, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen are determined on-site. The physicochemical constituents: alkalinity, aluminum, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, boron, calcium, chloride, chlorophyll, fluoride, iron, magnesium, manganese, nitrogen, ammonia, nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, reactive silica, sodium, sulfate, total dissolved solids, and total suspended solids are usually analyzed in the Laboratory [93].
Using differing standard techniques and instrumental methods; nutrients, major ions, and trace elements can also be determined. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) is commonly used to determine trace elements in water samples, sediment, or biological tissues. Gas chromatography detects molecules containing halogens, peroxides, quinones, and nitro groups, and a mass spectrophotometer is used to identify any unknown compound. Trace amounts of lithium, potassium, sodium, and strontium are analyzed using Flame photometry [94].
Microbiological analysis detects fecal contamination of water using the Multiple fermentation tube technique or the membrane filter technique [95]. The changes in the physical and chemical nature of water may be negligible or significant, this tells a story about the state of the water and its resident organisms for which possible implications for the intended use of the water and risks to human health may be inferred.
Biological monitoring is conducted to determine if the habitat has been adversely altered by testing the responses of biological communities, or individual organisms. These changes could be behavioral, physiological, or morphological and can also be considered responses to stress or the presence of contaminants, which are called toxicity tests and bioassays [96]. The bio-monitors serve as early warning signals expressed as bio-signals in test organisms due to fluctuations in water quality for which further actions could take a more detailed investigation [97]. The most commonly used organisms are fish, the crustacean Daphnia sp., algae, and bacteria. Organisms may also accumulate certain contaminants in their tissues over time known as bioaccumulation, which may activate a physiological outcome and bio-magnify in higher organisms that consume them. Suppose a correlation can be established between the concentration of a contaminant in a water body and its concentration in the tissues of an aquatic organism. In that case, the organism may be suitable for chemical monitoring of the contaminant in the water body [98].
Due to the interconnectedness of all waterbodies both surface and underground, and the land-based involvement in waters, water quality monitoring can be conducted at regular sites or stations continuously or at selected sites as the need arises or on a seasonal basis or at random sites and on an emergency basis when accidents or spill occur. Depending on their environmental laws, the national, state, or local government should conduct water quality monitoring within their boundaries, and provide technical guidance on monitoring and reporting results. Private entities such as universities, watershed associations, environmental groups, and permitted dischargers also conduct water quality monitoring for their purposes, or to share with government decision-makers.
6.1 The future of water quality monitoring
The water issue is nothing new in the developing world, but it is becoming increasingly important in the developing world. The UN Sustainable Development Goal 6 is to ensure access to clean water and sanitation because this is the most basic human need for health and well-being. The UN views water as the string with ties to health, poverty reduction, food security, peace and human rights, ecosystems, and education [99].
With better infrastructure and management, most water-related diseases such as cholera and diarrhea, will become preventable. There would be a reduction in the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience will be further strengthened. Promoting accountability is also crucial, civil society organizations should coordinate to keep governments accountable, and the government and private organizations must drive investment in water research and development, and promote the inclusion of women, youth, and Indigenous communities in water resources governance.
There is a lot of complexity associated with monitoring water quality thus requiring constant improvement on how monitoring should be conducted, how information is shared, and how decisions based on monitoring are made. The future should also include providing electronic reports of monitoring data to make it increasingly accessible to the public and to decision-makers at all levels of government [91].
6.2 Water refining processes
6.2.1 Water purification
This process renders water fit for consumption as undesired chemical compounds, organic and inorganic materials, and biological contaminants are removed from the water. This involves a lot of processes such as coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection [100]. Water purification may be small-scale (e.g., for individual households) or large-scale (e.g., for an entire city). Coagulation is often the first step in water treatment. In coagulation, positively charged chemicals are added to the water to neutralize the negative charge of dirt and other dissolved particles present in the water. As the particles bind with the chemicals, they form slightly larger particles. Common coagulation chemicals are aluminum or iron.
Flocculation follows the coagulation. This is achieved by the gentle mixing of the water to produce larger, heavier particles called flocs. Water treatment plants often add additional chemicals during this step to help the flocs form [101]. The sedimentation process separates solids from the water and flocs settle to the bottom of the water because they are heavier than water. The water is then filtered by allowing the clear water to pass through filters of different pore sizes and materials (such as sand, gravel, and charcoal).
An ultrafiltration process may be used in addition to or instead of traditional filtration. Using reverse osmosis filtration method removes additional particles from the water making it very efficient when treating recycled water or salt water for drinking. The last stage is disinfection which involves adding one or more chemical disinfectants such as chlorine, chloramine, or chlorine dioxide to kill any remaining parasites, bacteria, or viruses.
6.2.2 Reclaimed water
This is known as wastewater reuse, water reuse, or water recycling. It involves converting municipal wastewater or sewage and industrial wastewater into water that can be reused for some purposes such as irrigation for agricultural purposes, household or industrial use, or even possibly to reach drinking standards [102]. The principal objective of wastewater treatment is reducing nutrient and contaminant loads to the environment, thus maintaining aquatic ecosystem health [103].
In many countries including the USA, federal regulations and coordination among states are lacking, as water recycling regulations and standards are left to the states. This absence of federal involvement allows for diverse standards to exist across the country, despite the differing standards, it is expected that a multi-barrier approach is implemented in water recycling processes.
The World Health Organization recognizes increasing water scarcity and stress, increasing environmental pollution, and the increasing recognition of the resource value of wastewater, excreta, and greywater are the driving forces for municipal wastewater reuse [104] and that reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using freshwater supplies can be a water-saving measure. Likewise, discharging treated water into natural water sources, benefits the ecosystems by improving streamflow, nourishing plant life, and recharging aquifers, as part of the natural water cycle.
6.2.3 Desalinization
Oceans cover 70% of the planet and there is no shortage of seawater. Desalination is the process of removing salts from water. This purification process achieves drinkable freshwater from vastly available saline sources such as brackish or seawater water [105]. Countries, such as the Maldives, Malta, and the Bahamas, meet all their water needs through the desalination process, while Saudi Arabia gets 50% of its drinking water from desalination and up to 16,000 desalination plants are operating in 177 countries [106].
Thermal and membrane methods are the two main desalinization technologies. Thermal technologies use heat for their operation and it involves heating hyper-saline water and gathering condensed vapor for the production of freshwater examples include multi-stage flash (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED), vapor compression distillation (VCD), adsorption desalination (AD), humidification-dehumidification (HDH), and freezing technologies [107].
The membrane-based desalination uses the principle of osmosis to transport water from a low concentration to a high concentration aqueous environment through a semi-permeable membrane until stability in concentration is achieved. This process utilizes membrane and electrical energy to power its process and is classified into forward osmosis (FO), electrodialysis (ED), electrodialysis reversal (EDR), reverse osmosis (RO), and nano-filtration (NF) [108].
Desalination is responsible for just about 1% of the world’s drinking water, we have a lot to do with harnessing this seeming “drought-proof” and “limitless” power of the ocean [109]. The downside, however, is its environmental footprint as it is considered energy-intensive and expensive.
6.3 Water conservation: way forward
While creating water out of thin air may be in the foreseeable future, water conservation practice employs using water efficiently to reduce unnecessary water usage. By sustainably managing fresh water’s natural resources, and protecting the hydrosphere, both current and future human water demands may be met. Water conservation efforts should include policies, strategies, and activities to manage freshwater resources and water consumption sustainably.
In 2018, when Cape Town became the focus of South Africa’s water crisis, a statewide awareness to reduce water consumption and wastage ensued. The dystopian scenario was averted as many feared for their livelihoods; analysts estimated that the water crisis would cost some 300,000 jobs in agriculture and tens of thousands more in the service, hospitality, and food sectors [110]. Residents’ efforts began to have an impact, as water consumption fell and impending doomsday was pushed further.
Every little contribution goes a long way, in our daily activities, we often overlook the amount of water used in various processes. By becoming more aware and making informed choices, individuals can contribute to water conservation. Turning the tap off while brushing, choosing shorter shower times, and using washing machines and dishwashers only when fully loaded all help to conserve water [111]. Installing water-efficient appliances and fixtures, and fixing leaks on time can make a significant impact in the long run. Strategizes to promote water conservation attitudinal change would be beneficial within affected communities.
Policy shifts should put water at the heart of action plans. Encouraging collaboration and partnership among countries promotes better-coordinated trans-border support geared toward balancing the water needs of communities, industry, agriculture, and ecosystems. A sustainable water management plan that helps society adapt to climate change by building resilience, protecting health, and saving lives. When natural buffers such as wetlands are protected, flooding, extreme weather events, erosion, and pollution reduction follow in surface and underground water. Regulators who enforce compliance must ensure acquiescence with established standards and guidelines, especially with industries to implement water-efficient practices and court them as pioneers of renewable energy sources, and mitigators of the impacts of climate change.
In addition, climate mitigation strategies: reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving energy efficiency, would limit climate change’s impact on water resources. Since agriculture also consumes a lot of water, adopting climate-smart agriculture, which uses modern-day conservation techniques that improve soil moisture retention thus, requiring less water for plant growth [112].
Governments and corporate entities can increase funding for research and development initiatives that target innovative water-saving technologies and practices. Financing water resource management research will foster sustainable, affordable, and scalable water solutions. Reusing wastewater can help reduce the pressure on freshwater as regulated treated wastewater, can be used for irrigation and industrial and municipal purposes. It is also important to facilitate means to capture rainwater for small-scale use (rooftop capture) or large-scale (surface dams) to reduce run-off and increase aquifer reload.
One of the biggest threats to global ecosystems is water scarcity. Without concerted water conservation efforts, the threat to humanity is inevitable. The ability to anticipate and prepare adequately for future water resource management challenges is contingent on how seriously we address the issues of climate change, water pollution, and ecosystem health. Understanding the rate and scale of change and the consequences for our well-being is crucial to implementing a sustainable water-based management system.
Our effectiveness in predicting the threat of global warming and looming water scarcity, responding to associated changes in water resource availability and quality, identifying the pressure points attributable to water resource changes, preventing uncertainties about future climate and water-related conditions that make adaptation more difficult, and preparing for improvements that detect water shortages in advance, forecast their duration and intensity, would help form the management strategies to curb future water resource challenges.
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Written By
Oluwafikemi Iji and Oluwatisheyitoju Iji
Submitted: 06 June 2024Reviewed: 07 June 2024Published: 26 July 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
