Sustainable and Resilient Housing in Tropical Climates: Best Practices for Construction and Energy Security

Abstract

Ensuring that ecosystem services are effectively maintained and integrated while also proactively adapting to the challenges posed by climate change is essential for developing sustainable and resilient housing in both new and existing settlements. The tropics cover roughly 40% of the world and are home to about 40% of the global population. By the late 2030s or 2040s, 50% of the world’s population is projected to live in the tropics. This research project investigates the intersection of sustainable construction and energy security for achieving sustainable and resilient housing in tropical climates. Examining (1) resilience strategies against climate change impacts and (2) case studies led to highlighting best practices regarding construction and energy security aspects. Finally, a reference framework is provided for architects, policymakers, and stakeholders involved in tropical housing development.

1. Introduction

Emphasizing the urgency of sustainable and resilient housing is crucial, given the significant time spent inside buildings and this sector’s escalating impact on greenhouse gases and climate change [1, 2].

Climate change effects have led to global migration [3], with people leaving rural or suburban areas that are no longer habitable and relying on basic human services. These migrations, often initiated by the people themselves and sometimes supported by governments, present a complex challenge. To achieve successful relocations, numerous factors need to be considered, and understanding the peoples’ ways of life is crucial. The task of achieving a sustainable and resilient relocation is daunting, especially given the limited time frame and the need for available land for new settlements or the adaptation of existing settlements.

On the other hand, climate change effects have caused the enforcement of strategies to develop new settlements that are able to adapt to future climate change scenarios. This endeavor to design and build new settlements increases the anthropogenic metabolism of new land resources for ecosystem services. Thus, it becomes imperative to focus on both new and existing settlements, where the latter may produce a higher negative environmental impact. As most existing settlements did not consider sustainability practices or climate resiliency, infrastructure losses and waste (due to floods, storms, earthquakes, among others) will increase land, atmosphere, and ocean pollution [4].

Many initiatives around the world have been launched aiming to achieve sustainable and resilient housing, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [5], the Paris Agreement [6], Global Alliance for Building and Construction (GlobalABC) [7], International Green Construction Code (IgCC) [8], Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) [9], the World Green Building Council [10], and the World Resources Institute [11]. Although many countries have compromised for at least one such initiative, achieving sustainable and resilient housing is a highly context-related task [4], and thus, starting by understanding the context-related ecosystem services first may help establish equitable social well-being.

Therefore, this chapter addresses this crucial issue by exploring the intersection of sustainable construction, energy security, and best practices for tropical climates in shaping the future of habitation. Tropic latitude countries may face diverse challenges compared to Northern and Southern latitude countries, withstanding significantly different approaches for sustainable housing [12]. Tropical latitude countries generally experience dry and rainy seasons with slight temperature variations and highly variable precipitation regimes [13]. However, in each country, significant temperature variations are found between regions with different altitudes and forestry amounts [14].

Thus, through case studies analysis, this chapter aims to identify actionable best practices for architects, policymakers, and stakeholders involved in tropical housing development. The project seeks to contribute valuable insights into creating environmentally sustainable and resilient dwellings in tropical regions like Panama and beyond by addressing these critical aspects.

2. Addressing resiliency in tropical housing: construction and energy

Fulfilling ecosystem services while adapting to climate changes is key to achieving sustainable and resilient housing in new or existing settlements. While sustainability aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising future generations [15], resilience focuses on the power to act on urban systems to maintain continuity or to adapt amid shocks and stresses [16].

On the one hand, resilience can be understood as a process. When a community faces a disaster, the robustness, redundancy, and rapidity of the resources and how they are managed are fundamental to overcoming the catastrophe and functioning in an altered environment, considering both the material and psychological aspects as individuals and as a collectivity. On the other hand, in the practical world, resilience is also about lessons and practices that can be implemented after a disaster. It is about providing communities with the tools to prevent, adapt, and bounce back from disasters. Among those lessons and practices are [1] never thinking communities can be immune to disasters, [2] learning from old experiences, [3] thinking and planning for possible hazards, and [4] implementing green technology and practices in the design of infrastructures as in developing a design [17].

Particularly, tropical housing is characterized by high cooling demands due to abundant solar radiation, high temperatures (in most regions), high humidity, and high flood risk due to high heavy rain frequency throughout the year [18]. Housing near coastal zones is under high corrosion risk due to wind and sea salt. Besides, tropical housing can benefit from lower temperatures at high altitudes, reducing cooling demand, although there is a high risk of humidity problems.

The tropics, which cover approximately 40% of the world, are home to about 40% of the global population (Figure 1). With a higher-than-average population growth in sub-Saharan Africa, it is projected that by the late 2030s or 2040s, 50% of the world’s population will reside in the tropics. This rapid shift in population underscores the urgent need for sustainable and resilient housing solutions in tropical regions [19]. In turn, climate change effects are currently increasing the intensity of such housing characteristics, challenging the new and existing housing in terms of construction approaches, energy security, cooling technologies, urban planning, and resource management.

Figure 1.

Worldwide map highlighting countries considered tropical according to the world population review [19].

2.1 Construction for sustainable and resilient housing

By the year 2050, 70% of the population is estimated to live in cities, leading to significant land occupation for uncontrolled urban expansion without green infrastructure to address challenges such as the increased urban heat island effect (UHI). This problem, combined with the effects of climate change, increases the vulnerability of cities to severe storms, intensified heat, and rising sea levels compared to surrounding rural regions [20, 21]. Therefore, it is crucial to develop resilient urban environments capable of adapting to these challenges. Interdisciplinary collaboration is key, as recent studies on urban planning multidisciplinary methods underline the need to create knowledge and expertise on sustainable urban planning for tropical regions. Climate analysis methodologies are rarely implemented in local climate plans fostered by tropical cities [22]. Research suggests that urban development strategies have been mostly examined in temperate zones and, therefore, must be tailored to local climates, socio-economic contexts, and cultural landscapes—in tropical regions—to be accurate and effective. It is imperative to target challenges tropical cities face, such as high population density, economic disparities, and vulnerability to climate change [23].

Sustainable urban planning is essential for promoting long-term social, economic, and environmental well-being. This is crucial for bridging the urban gap and ensuring that cities are inclusive, sustainable, economically dynamic, culturally rich, and safe for everyone [24]. Planning systematically helps to anticipate future problems and decide in advance the best solutions, maximizing land use and optimizing urban resources while restoring ecosystem services.

2.1.1 Urban planning for tropical regions

There are different approaches to planning for facing climate change, such as adaptation, mitigation, and emergency response plans. There are planning schemes at diverse scales in ranges from regional to local plans. On the other hand, the planning will depend on the type of hazards the community faces according to its location and geographical characteristics [22, 23, 24]. Nevertheless, whatever the scale or focus of the plan, there are essential principles that should not be overlooked when planning to overcome climate change challenges in tropical regions. Those have been summarized and categorized as shown below and in Figure 2.

1. Comprehensive data collection, mapping, and collaboration: Accurate data on weather and climate, such as temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and sea levels, is essential to plan, understand climate trends, and predict future scenarios. Accurate risk maps and thorough assessments of flood-prone areas susceptible to sea level rise, storm surges, or heavy rainfall, among others, help plan and implement effective defense strategies. Sharing data and best practices with multiple governmental agencies, research institutions, and international organizations improves monitoring capacity and response to Climate Change Hazards [22, 25].

2. Monitoring updates and robust early warning systems through advanced technology: New remote sensing, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and climate modeling software enable precise monitoring through real-time data, updated climate models, and risk assessments. These facilitate wise decision-making and planning—ensuring that climate plans remain relevant and responsive to changing conditions—and that Early Warning Systems, integrated into local communication networks, provide timely alerts to vulnerable populations [22, 25, 26, 27].

3. Community participation, integration of traditional knowledge with scientific data, and capacity building: Local knowledge often provides valuable insights into weather patterns and environmental changes. Building capacity through engagement and training of community members, stakeholders, and local authorities to observe, report weather changes, operate monitoring equipment, and execute data analysis and interpretation empowers the community to participate in disaster preparedness activities and ensures that monitoring systems are socially inclusive, locally relevant, and sustainable. Local knowledge can enhance the accuracy and relevance of monitoring on-edge efforts [22, 28, 29, 30, 31].

4. Policy integration: Fusing weather and climate monitoring into broader policy frameworks ensures that monitoring data informs urban planning, infrastructure development, and emergency response strategies. Policies must regulate the use of monitoring data in decision-making processes [22, 32, 33].

Figure 2.

Elements that constitute the key principles of sustainable urban planning for tropical regions facing climate change.

2.1.2 Protection against strong winds

In many tropical areas, the dry season is followed by strong winds associated with the onset of the wet season. These strong winds pose a danger to poorly located and protected buildings. Protection against strong winds must begin with the proper location. For small buildings, mature trees and buildings within 6 to 12 diameters can substantially reduce wind forces. For larger buildings, such protection may not be available, and wind protection must be provided at the site location. A rule of thumb that can be used is that the annual percentage of time there are no winds greater than 24 km/h is 89% for an open site, 93% for a suburban site with 30% tree coverage (approximately 1.62 hectares of 2YO forest in 0.4 km radius of a building), and 97% for an urban site with 50% building coverage (approximately 92% of the area built 6.1 m high) [34, 35, 36].

2.1.3 Adaptation to rising temperatures

Tropical regions have been projected to experience continuous urbanization over the past decades. One of the most common issues experienced by cities worldwide and in the humid and warm climates of the tropics is the urban heat island (UHI) effect. The UHI occurs when urban areas have higher temperatures than rural areas due to urbanization. It is primarily caused by reduced vegetation cover, open burning, wildfires, changes in land use, building environment configuration and its construction materials, deforestation, and emissions from industrial activities and traffic, all contributing to increased temperatures. It is predicted that some cities within tropical regions could become up to 4°C warmer by 2050 due to these factors, and some are already showing these trends [37, 38]. Cooling strategies, particularly passive ones, could mitigate heat island and indoor discomfort problems, reduce the energy for mechanical cooling, and promote walking rather than motorized forms of movement [39, 40].

At the same time, these cities are affected by rising temperatures associated with climate change [41]. In these circumstances, an increase in the frequency and severity of heat waves and tropical nights is predicted by the end of the twenty-first century. Extreme heat events are projected to increase significantly, especially in urban areas. Shore and building facets, solar and anthropogenic heating, increasing human population density, and growing energy demand, especially during the pre-monsoon months, boost the land- and sea-breeze circulations, which ultimately result in the stagnation of air masses over larger cities [42].

Adequate urban morphology and open space, the use of planning elements to direct air movement, effective sunshades, and local evaporative and other cooling techniques are important passive cooling strategies [43]. Shading, applying reflective and high-emissivity materials on roofs and pavements, optimizing the sky view factors, and an urban energy balance about form factor, plant density, and site coverage could cool the heat island [44].

The climatic environment throughout the year at the street level should be studied, monitored, and counteracted by a combined optimized street width and height-to-width ratio, optimal vegetation placement for localized UHI reduction, pedestrian air conditioning, and the shading of the facades [45, 46].

2.1.4 Adaptation to floods and rising sea levels

Currently, nearly 500 million people live near coastal areas, making them vulnerable settlements at risk of flooding due to extreme precipitation events or rising sea levels [47]. Some of the most severe urban, local, and regional problems are associated with flooding of rivers and ponds. The problems created by floods can only be solved if the spatial allocation of different functions and land uses are modified so that they are compatible with the recurrence of flooding and the increased flows expected to be caused by global warming. To solve flood problems, it is usually necessary to use land that is now classified as low value for agriculture or nature conservation. This requires recognition of the value of the services performed by green areas to society and the environment.

However, this can be achieved by (a) increasing the demand for residential and work-related services that are utilized under the present conditions of natural presence and protection without isolated towers and (b) achieving their recognition in income estimations and value-added beauty awards to the parcels that shelter them [39, 48]. Using the areas that are prone to flooding and do not have economic value can reduce flood risks for other areas that are relative at lower elevations. These include parks, buffer areas, detention basins, and natural flood retention areas (Figure 3). Although the occurrence of floods has decreased the economic value of the unoccupied areas, these recreational and sports grounds can be integrated with the water body and demonstrate ecological problems for residents [49].

Figure 3.

Coastal urban settlement in Costa del Este, Panama City, Panama.

Numerous towns and cities in tropical zones already experience regular flooding due to heavy rainfall events in catchment areas, leading to rapid inflow into rivers and the obstruction of water channels by accumulated solids (illicit connections, discharges of solid waste, illegal occupation of waterways, etc.). Therefore, due to the serious shortage of space in urban areas, building on flood-prone lands cannot be avoided. However, sustainable and controlled urban planning in these regions can mitigate this risk by maintaining or creating watercourses that regulate fluid drainage and by planning for the xeric use of the urban area [50, 51, 52].

2.2 Energy security for resilient housing

Achieving sustainable and resilient housing requires relying on ecosystem services such as clean or low-carbon energy sources and their harnessing. Securing the ability to harness such energy sources contributes to energy security. Figure 4 represents key aspects of energy security, such as renewable energy integration, diversification of energy sources, grid resilience and decentralization [53], energy efficiency, climate resilience, and community engagement and empowerment.

Figure 4.

Mind mapping the aspects of energy security to focus on in the achievement of sustainable and resilient housing.

Each of these aspects of housing in tropical climates is challenged. Regarding renewable energy integration, solar energy is abundant and can be harnessed effectively through photovoltaic systems or solar water systems. However, the high temperatures during the dry season and the high cloud coverage during the rainy season can make it difficult to obtain the maximum power from photovoltaic systems. This calls for innovation in such systems. The affordability of such systems is changing over time, becoming more accessible even in developing countries. This promotes decentralization through individual self-energy generation. Such an individual generation opportunity will need to be supported by a resilient electrical grid capable of maintaining high performance against any climatic event [54]. Such energy decentralization, relying on solar energy, among residential and commercial sectors may increase the risk of instability of the distribution network. Nonetheless, several non-conventional strategies can be found to harness solar energy for cooling, such as daytime radiative passive cooling [55], and electricity generation, such as bidirectional reflectance photovoltaics [56], purposes at a residential level.

Despite the well-known recommendations from bioclimatic design approaches for tropical climates, multifamily and office buildings are very tall (Figure 3). Many of the office buildings can be found to have fully glazed facades. The cooling demand reaches tremendously high levels. This is a call for increasing the compliance of construction standards to increase energy efficiency in buildings. For multifamily buildings and house construction and development, deficiencies can be found when considering indoor air or indoor environment quality.

To cope with the cooling demand to reach comfort levels, which vary greatly, the use of air conditioning split units may have been overrated because of the accumulation risk of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and volatile organic components (VOC) concentrations [57] and this may be a result of their affordability and accessibility. As the split unit only recirculates indoor air in a closed room, CO₂ and VOC concentration levels can rise beyond the healthy limits [58, 59]. This negatively impacts the indoor air quality and, thus, the occupants’ health.

3. Best practices: strategies for tropical housing

3.1 Standardization and regulation

Many existing standards were established before the importance of sustainability and resilience was fully understood, resulting in a framework that may not adequately support modern construction and needs. Traditional standards often prioritize cost-efficiency and speed over environmental considerations, making it challenging to implement innovative solutions that reduce ecological footprints, enhance energy efficiency, and improve overall sustainability. Additionally, these standards may lack provisions for resilience against climate change impacts, such as extreme weather events.

In recent decades, there has been a growing incorporation of sustainability and resilience into international construction standards [60]. However, few countries have fully integrated these aspects into their construction standards. While construction standards provide crucial guidance for safety and quality, they can sometimes delay the advancement of sustainable and resilient construction practices [61]. The main cause is that updating and revising construction standards can be slow and bureaucratic, hindering the adoption of new technologies and methods that could benefit the environment and society.

Construction standards are useful for establishing the design criteria, materials, construction methods, and operational guidelines for buildings and other structures (Figure 5). Primarily, these standards focus on safety aspects such as job site, structural, and fire safety, as well as basic services like water, sanitation, and energy. They also cover dimensions for functionality, quality of construction, energy efficiency during operation, accessibility, indoor air quality, and urban planning. Construction standards exist at both national and international levels, with national standards often mandated by law. However, construction standards must be tailored to local conditions, such as topography, geology, and climate [62], especially considering climate change.

Figure 5.

Mind mapping of the role of construction standards in the sustainable and resilient housing goal.

Building efficiency codes set minimum energy and resource efficiency standards for construction and design. These codes are most effective within a policy framework that includes mandatory regulations, financial programs, and incentives [63]. For instance, the Panamanian Regulation for Sustainable Building [64] aims to establish minimum standards to encourage the development of high-performance buildings, thereby reducing the environmental impact of the building. Despite its mandatory nature, this regulation still faces implementation challenges.

3.2 Certifications

Other construction standards are voluntarily led by corporations that are compromised with sustainability, offering advisory services and recognition throughout the achievement of sustainable housing. Such is the case of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) for Homes, Multifamily Low-rise, and Multifamily Midrise, created by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) which serves as a voluntary framework and tool for planning, constructing, operating, and maintaining green buildings. Its objectives include optimizing natural resource use, promoting restorative practices, minimizing the environmental footprint of the building industry, and enhancing indoor environmental quality for occupants.

A minimum requirement that a LEED for Homes project must meet is to be defined as a “dwelling” according to all applicable codes, including, but not limited to, the International Residential Code stipulation that a dwelling unit must include “permanent provisions for living, sleeping, eating, cooking, and sanitation” [65]. Applicability is for single-family dwellings (homes), multifamily residential buildings with 1 to 3 stories (multifamily low-rise), and multifamily residential buildings with four or more occupiable stories above grade (multifamily midrise) [65].

Similarly, the Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies (EDGE) for Homes and Apartments is a sustainable building certification system with the aim of making buildings more efficient. EDGE was created by the International Finance Corporation, a member of the World Bank Group, and is a quick and easy-to-use online calculator for massive market transformation. This calculator allows developers and construction companies to quickly identify the most effective ways to reduce energy, water, and resources in building materials [66].

Through key energy-saving and cost-saving solutions such as energy-efficient lighting, thermal glazing, and water-conserving bathroom fixtures, and therefore lower water and electricity bills, developers can meet the expectations of buyers and residents who want to achieve returns on investment while living in comfortable and enjoyable spaces [66]. A comparison summary between LEED and EDGE is shown in Table 1. The costs of the necessary professionals and third parties (e.g., Green Rater, Energy Rater, Auditor) must be considered in the investment and development of projects with green housing certification to maintain the economic balance and sustainability.

	LEED certification	EDGE certification
Verification	LEED Green Rater, Energy Rater.	EDGE Auditor.
Certification	Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI).	Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI).
Certification levels	Certified, Silver, Gold, Platinum.	Certified, Advanced, Zero Carbon.
Strategies	Location and Transportation, Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy and Atmosphere, Materials and Resources, Indoor Environmental Quality, Innovation and Regional Priority.	Energy, Water, and Materials.
Costs	Registration and certification fees, LEED Green Rater, Energy Rater, Consultancy.	Registration and certification fees, EDGE Auditor, Consultancy.

Table 1.

Comparison between LEED and EDGE certification.

Table 2 shows the number of units registered and certified under the LEED and EDGE green building programs in fully and partially tropical countries. The data hint that the sustainable and resilient housing movement and market is still weak but slowly gaining ground.

Registered and certified LEED projects (2016) [40]	Registered and certified EDGE projects (2022–2024) [67]
Homes, Multifamily Lowrise, and Multifamily Midrise (25): Chile (15), México (4), Colombia (2), Perú (2), Brazil (1), Costa Rica (1).	Apartments (308): Perú (146), Colombia (83), Brazil (32), México (21), Guatemala (10), Ecuador (9), Chile (4), Argentina (3), Panamá (2).
	Homes (116): México (42), Brazil (13), Colombia (13), Ecuador (13), El Salvador (13), Argentina (12), Guatemala (3), Panamá (3), Costa Rica (2), Dominican Republic (1), Chile (1).

Table 2.

Registered and certified LEED and EDGE projects in fully and partially tropical countries.

Moreover, based on 25 interviewed and surveyed LEED certified green projects, covering a built-up area of 830,000 m², of which 4% are within the residential use, it was found that the main sustainability strategies to be implemented are mainly decided during the early planning phase [68]. Table 3 presents the main strategies and practices implemented among the aforementioned study.

Strategy	Practice
Lighting	LED lighting technology. Access to natural light through translucent elements in the envelope, such as windows and skylights. Daylight sensors and dimming of electric lighting. Occupancy sensors, and additional controls such as timers, daylight control, or scene control.
Ventilation and Air conditioning	Mechanical ventilation systems have on/off monitoring and temperature control. Have minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV) or high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters. Use natural ventilation strategies as the primary method to ensure minimum or supplemental indoor air quality. Natural conditioning of the spaces in their totality or partially in common areas.
Plumbing	Implement water-saving and low-flush toilets and low-consumption faucets. Collection of rainwater for non-potable use, such as flushing toilets and irrigation. Greywater treatment for non-potable uses.
Landscaping	Implementation of native or adapted vegetation that does not require irrigation after planting.
Energy Sources	Implementation of renewable energy systems based on solar energy, with solar panels or solar collectors for water heating.

Table 3.

Main strategies and practices implemented in certified green projects.

Furthermore, the selection of green certifications will depend on specific project details, sustainability goals, and unique local conditions and opportunities presented by tropical climates in terms of sustainable and resilient housing design and construction.

The Green Mark Scheme from Singapore withstands, among others, because it combines various legal and regulatory mechanisms to undergird this green certification regime and various financial incentive schemes, risk-sharing programs, and rewards, which have made the government’s commitment credible, lowering entry barriers for new participants [69].

Certain green building certifications are increasingly prioritizing both embodied and operational carbon emissions. This shift includes incorporating mandates for life cycle assessments of building materials and applying purchase of carbon offsets [70].

Carbon trading mechanisms can facilitate emission reductions by incentivizing cleaner practices and the implementation of carbon offset projects. Studies explore the global transition to carbon neutrality, focusing on energy efficiency, renewable energy, carbon trading, and the need for advanced and integrated energy policies [71]. On the other hand, there is also a critical analysis of carbon offsetting and its impact on maintaining consumption patterns. While carbon offset projects can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, their effectiveness raises concerns because they also risk legitimizing and perpetuating high-consumption lifestyles in developed countries. Carbon offset projects allow individuals or organizations to compensate for their carbon emissions by investing in emission reduction projects elsewhere, this may serve as a distraction and divert attention from the need for fundamental changes in consumption and production patterns, therefore, systemic solutions to climate change [53].

3.3 Strategies and technologies

3.3.1 Facing heavy rains

Open spaces and building facades designed for natural ventilation become a challenge during the rainy seasons of tropical areas, therefore, a balance between ventilation and rain protection is needed when designing and building housing.

Research on wind-driven rain barriers in tropical regions revealed that tiled overhangs are the most effective elements to protect building facades designed for natural ventilation from heavy rains. This strategy was followed by a full horizontal louvered facade configuration among other three strategies that proved less effective. Thus, considering the design and implementation of tiled overhangs for facades with large openings is key in adapting to heavy rain patterns facing climate change in the tropics. This allows maintaining the openings necessary for breeze and ventilation while performing as a buffer for heavy rains and winds [72, 73].

Flooding is an increasing problem in many cities facing urban growth and climate change. A great part of flood prevention should be based on urban planning and flood risk mapping to avoid housing development in flood-prone areas. Therefore, it is worth emphasizing in another aspect of flood prevention and preparedness as is water infiltration for rainy tropical regions [74, 75, 76, 77].

The impervious surfaces hamper natural rainwater infiltration into the soil, boosting runoff to lower areas and causing flooding. Green roofs have been popularized in temperate climates for the thermal comfort they provide, nonetheless, studies brought to light the importance of implementing these strategies to adapt to heavy rains and prevent flooding events. The implementation of green roofs demonstrated an average reduction of the runoff of 60.3% for the 9 months of the study [73]. More studies on local plant use should be made to adapt green roofs to different tropical environments.

Concrete-based constructions have important advantages against floods. For example, concrete structures such as Xblocs are being used to mitigate the effects of sea level rise (Figure 6a) [81], permeable concretes are being used to allow infiltration and in some cases, the harvesting of rainwater in the face of the intense rainfall in tropical areas [82] and linear parks using permeable concrete are presented as a drainage strategy against flooding in urban areas.

Figure 6.

Resilient construction strategies for tropical climates: (a) Shore protection of the Cinta Costera Boulevard in Panama City using concrete XBlocs [78], (b) Concrete retaining wall against landslides in Panama City, (c) Hurricane-resistant housing (monolithic dome) made of reinforced concrete [79], (d) Concrete houses within the former Albrook Air Force Station in Panama [80] which have been in use for more than 90 years.

3.3.2 Facing heat increase

In tropical climates, high temperatures combined with high humidity led to uncomfortable thermal sensations, making thermal comfort one of the main challenges, while reducing energy consumption and its associated impacts to improve the occupants’ quality of life during the building’s operation stage [83].

At the building level, this effect can be mitigated by implementing passive strategies and vernacular architecture approaches, such as using sustainable materials, reflective paints (cool roofs) [84], green roofs, and even installing solar panels on the roofs of buildings [85]. It is necessary to consider the orientation of the building and natural cross-ventilation [86, 87]. In addition, it should have windows and an envelope that improves thermal insulation.

At the city level, adequate urban planning that includes open and green spaces to cool cities through air circulation, shade, and evapotranspiration is necessary [88]. Permeable concrete pavements that reduce the concentration of heat due to their porosity and reflective paints are recommended [89].

3.3.3 Facing landslides and strong winds

Focusing on site selection, land use planning, slope stabilization, and building design can address landslides and strong wind effects. Historical data and land use planning help avoid construction on steep slopes and areas with a history of landslides [90, 91]. Zoning regulations that restrict building in high-risk areas can be implemented.

Using slope stabilization approaches, such as retaining walls (Figure 6b), terracing, and vegetation, is effective in creating landslide safety. However, it is equally important to employ geotechnical engineering techniques, such as soil nailing, rock bolting, and geosynthetics.

Design buildings with strong foundations and structural reinforcements to withstand ground movement. Use flexible building materials that can absorb and dissipate energy from landslides. Concrete walls and foundations retaining works against possible landslides [92]. Regarding building materials, a review of resilient and sustainable housing models found that they had in common the use of concrete as a building material [93]. The robustness of concrete allows the construction of structures resistant to extreme weather events such as storms and hurricanes (Figure 6c) with a lifespan of at least 50 years that could be further expanded with appropriate maintenance (Figure 6d).

3.3.4 Construction technologies

Emerging construction methods and tools address current limitations and deliver additional benefits in constructing sustainable and resilient housing. Many construction companies build primarily with conventional techniques without utilizing the various technological advances, such as 3D printing with concrete, whose strength is in printing and utilizing the exact number of materials required.

Although concrete is a cement-based material with high CO₂ emissions, the industry is constantly researching and implementing technologies to reduce these emissions [94]. For instance, 3D printing can potentially reduce embodied carbon, which is the total carbon dioxide (CO₂) associated with material manufacturing, transportation, and construction methods used throughout the life cycle of a building. The carbon footprint is reduced by using alternative products in the concrete mix, decreasing the number of materials needed on site, reducing timber formwork, and minimizing the volume of workers commuting to the site.

To lower the environmental impact of housing and infrastructure, it is recommended to design and build with less concrete through topological optimization and 3D printing [95], optimize concrete mix to use less cement, and use fillers and supplementary cementitious materials in cement to reduce clinker [96]. A limitation in some regions may be construction standards that require a minimum of clinker, although the possibility of using up to 70% less clinker while maintaining the strength and durability of concrete has been demonstrated [97].

In terms of resilience, one of the challenges of 3D printing is that more research is needed, as flammable structural and architectural materials or products (roofs, windows, doors) used in conjunction with concrete must be studied to ensure the resilience of the entire system in the event of a site-specific catastrophe or extreme weather event. Other constraints are related to variable weather conditions and topography of the construction site, gaps in regulations and building codes not updated to include specific guidelines for 3D printing, and the impact of reduced employment in the construction industry [98, 99].

Proper insulation is crucial in the housing envelope, particularly in tropical climates. It plays a key role in avoiding heat gain and reducing cooling demands in air-conditioned buildings. For these buildings, high insulating capacity or low U-value should be installed on the hotter side of the dwelling. Conversely, it is advisable to avoid applying thermal insulation on the walls for non-air-conditioned buildings, as this could trap heat. Roofs exposed to direct solar radiation and excessive heat gain should be protected by appropriate insulation [100].

One of the best practices in building sustainable and resilient houses is to conduct a comprehensive and robust site assessment. This assessment should identify possible alternatives and disaster mitigation measures, ensuring that the construction is well-prepared for potential challenges.

3.4 Proposed reference framework toward sustainable and resilient tropical housing

By implementing the best practices from the previous section, cities in tropical regions can significantly improve their resilience to climate change and the management of risks associated with extreme weather events. The principles of sustainable urban planning in tropical climates can be a guideline for developing sustainable and resilient housing. Figure 7 shows how each principle relates to others and to urban planning, as well as how all these factors of planning influence local people.

Figure 7.

Links between key principles of sustainable urban planning for tropical regions facing climate change.

Depending on the housing, whether existing or new, the starting principle to apply the framework varies. For instance, for new housing data to come first, historical and forecast data of the new settlement zone must be analyzed to uncover possible risks of extreme weather events. Such data serves to establish contextualized regulations and policies in defining the benchmark for construction, i.e., suitable materials, best-performance building envelope, and construction technologies. Similarly, it helps define a benchmark to achieve energy security (availability, decentralization, among others) for energy generation technologies, the best energy-saving strategies given.

However, to ensure the sustainability of such resilient housing, monitoring the weather variables and forecasting is crucial to generate alerts, allowing the community to be prepared and improve the development of future resilient urban planning.

Moreover, for existing housing, achieving resilience should start by analyzing data on weather and climate events and the existing community. This data-driven approach allows for a comprehensive assessment of the risks and the effectiveness of current mitigation and adaptation measures, helping to make informed decisions about the future of our communities. In such a scenario, the community resilience concept can be implemented, where health, safety, and environmental improvement of communities are the primary goals. It establishes the basis for a wider comprehension of communities and their behavior when facing an unexpected traumatic situation, as well as what to do regarding planning and design to be ready for a disaster, before, during, and after it [17, 101].

4. Final remarks

The implications of sustainable construction and energy security related to sustainable and resilient housing, specifically in tropical climates, were addressed in this study. Tropical regions face significant climate change challenges such as strong winds, rising temperatures, heavy rain, floods, rising sea levels, and landslides. Developing resilient and sustainable housing is essential to mitigate these challenges.

Addressing such requires tailored solutions that consider local environmental and economic conditions. Uniform approaches are ineffective given the diverse challenges even within the same country. Emphasizing localized strategies ensures that housing solutions are more effective in meeting the particular needs of each area, leading to more sustainability and resilience.

Such local and tailored strategies are best framed as part of data-informed construction standards and regulations. Updating construction standards and certifications is crucial for promoting sustainability and resilience. The lack of regulations for tropical climates demands timely community efforts.

Incorporating new technologies and adapting to local needs can ensure that buildings are not just better equipped, but significantly improved to withstand climate change impacts. This proactive approach not only enhances building performance but also aligns with global sustainability goals, fostering a more resilient and optimistic built environment.

Finally, the principles of sustainable urban planning, combined with innovative design and construction practices, sustainable harvest energy technologies, and responsible energy consumption, can significantly improve the safety and comfort of inhabitants in these vulnerable regions, increasing their chances of resilience.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Research Group Energy and Comfort in Bioclimatic Buildings (ECEB, https://eceb.utp.ac.pa/) part of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (https://fim.utp.ac.pa/) and the Research Group Sustainable Construction UTP, both within the Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá (https://utp.ac.pa/) for their collaboration. Likewise, special thanks to the Faculty of Architecture and Design (FADUP) from the University of Panama for their collaboration.

This research was funded by Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI, https://sni.senacyt.gob.pa/) and a Panamanian Institution Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENACYT, https://www.senacyt.gob.pa/) under the projects FIED22-09 and FIED24-11.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.