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The utilization of natural dyes in textile production has gained significant attention due to their eco-friendly characteristics and minimal environmental impact. Serving as a sustainable alternative for textile coloring, particularly when derived from native plant species, natural dyes contribute to the promotion of local biodiversity. Obtained from various botanical sources such as flora, flowers, leaves, roots, berries, barks, and wood, they offer a diverse range of hues spanning blues, reds, yellows, browns, and violets. However, achieving consistent and predictable colors with natural dyes presents challenges due to inherent variations in plant sources, growing conditions, and extraction techniques. The integration of mordants, including aluminum potassium sulfate, potassium dichromate, copper sulfate, and others, is crucial to enhance dye absorption and improve colorfastness. Natural dyes are employed across fabrics like cotton, linen, silk, wool, hemp, and blends, each contributing unique qualities to the vibrant and environmentally friendly palette. Yet, the longevity and strength of colors may vary based on factors like dye type, fabric substrate, and mordant effects, impacting chemical bonding between fibers, dyes, and mordants. Hence, meticulous selection of dyes and mordants, considering their compatibility with specific fibers, is essential for achieving optimal colorfastness and durability in natural dyeing processes.
Department of Textile Engineering, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
Department of Textiles, Merchandising, and Interiors, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States
Kazi Md. Rashedul Islam
Department of Textile Engineering, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh
Shahin Hossain
Department of Environmental Sciences, BGMEA University of Fashion and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
M. Abdul Jalil*
Department of Natural Sciences, BGMEA University of Fashion and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
M. Mahbubul Bashar
Department of Textile Engineering, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Tangail, Bangladesh
*Address all correspondence to: mti@just.edu.bd and tarikul@uga.edu
1. Introduction
Natural dyes, derived from plants, animals, minerals, and microorganisms, have been utilized for centuries to imbue textiles with vibrant hues. Classified based on their origin, including plant, animal, mineral, or microorganism dyes, natural pigments offer a renewable, biodegradable, and sustainable alternative to synthetic dyes. While plants predominantly serve as the primary source of natural dyes, their utilization extends across various realms, each offering unique properties and colors. The art of natural dyeing not only unveils the rich spectrum of colors hidden within local flora but also highlights the intricate relationship between humans and their environment. Through experimentation and collaboration, botanists and domestic gardeners have explored optimal cultivation practices, including soil conditions, climate suitability, and harvesting techniques, to maximize dye yields. This synergy between science and tradition has paved the way for the development of modern cultivation systems, ensuring the sustainable production of high-quality natural dyes. Contrary to common misconceptions, natural dyes are not limited to earthy tones but encompass a diverse array of vibrant and fast colors. With meticulous extraction processes and strategic dehydration methods, the inherent richness and luster of natural dyes rival that of synthetic counterparts, if not surpassing them. The commitment to harnessing the full potential of natural dye sources has fueled ongoing research and exploration, leading to the discovery of newer sources and expanding the color palette available for textile dyeing.
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in natural dyes, particularly for dyeing cotton and silk fabrics [1]. This renewed focus has spurred the exploration of innovative techniques and novel sources, promising an array of newer shades and fabric options. As farmers and fabric companies delve deeper into the realm of natural dyes, they stand to unlock new opportunities for the production of ethnic fabrics and natural products, contributing to a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future [2]. Through this chapter, we aim to explore the intricate world of natural dyes, shedding light on their origins, properties, and cultivation practices. By delving into the art and science of natural dyeing, we seek to inspire further exploration and innovation in this timeless craft, ensuring its enduring legacy in the textile industry and beyond.
The utilization of natural dyes in textile dyeing and printing dates back to the mid-nineteenth century, marking an era where synthetic dyes coexisted alongside their natural counterparts. Despite the economic efficiency and superior fastness properties of synthetic dyes, the introduction of natural dyes prompted a reduction in their usage [3]. The resurgence of natural dyes can be attributed to several factors, including increasing consumer awareness of the harmful effects associated with synthetic dyes, mounting global environmental concerns, and the implementation of stringent environmental regulations. This shift toward eco-conscious practices has propelled the revival of natural dyes, emphasizing their sustainability and biodegradability.
Natural dyes originate from various sources, including plants, biological organs, minerals, insects, and microbial and fungal sources, each offering a diverse spectrum of coloring matter. Despite this diversity, these sources can be broadly classified into four main categories based on their origin.
2.1 Plant source
In the annals of history, natural dyes predominantly emanated from plants, offering a plethora of hues sourced from various botanical materials such as roots, leaves, twigs, stems, bark, flowers, fruits, and more. This discussion delves into the realm of plant-derived natural dyes, showcasing their diverse range and traditional significance. Some plant sources of natural dyes are listed in Table 1.
Table 1.
Plant source of natural dyes.
Henna leaves, revered for their use in traditional hand painting, are a popular source of natural dye. Women often utilize henna leaves to create intricate designs on their hands. The process involves drying and crushing the leaves, followed by boiling them with water to extract the dye. The resulting hues span from rich browns to vibrant mustard yellows, adding a touch of cultural vibrancy to textiles. Tulsi leaves, enriched with ursolic acid, offer another botanical source of natural dye, yielding shades of verdant green. This versatile leaf serves not only as a medicinal herb but also as a sustainable option for textile dyeing, infusing fabrics with a fresh, botanical hue. Red sandalwood, renowned for its therapeutic properties, finds application as both an herbal remedy and a natural dye source. Extracted from the heartwood of the plant, red sandalwood yields a spectrum of colors ranging from warm oranges to deep browns, imbuing textiles with earthy, natural tones.
Turmeric, celebrated for its culinary and medicinal uses, also serves as a valuable natural dye. The roots of the turmeric plant are dried, ground into a fine powder, and boiled to extract the dye. Known as curcumins, the pigments in turmeric impart textiles with a radiant golden hue, evoking warmth and vitality. Pomegranate fruit peel extract offers a unique natural dye option, producing hues of green–yellow that transition to olive and dark gray when combined with iron. Additionally, pomegranate peel serves as a tannin-rich mordant, enhancing color fixation and durability on fabrics. Chamomile flowers, with their delicate blooms, yield natural dyes in shades of green or yellow. These flowers contain a variety of flavonoids, including apigenin, luteolin, and quercetin, which contribute to their color properties, adding a touch of natural elegance to textiles. Indian madder, a member of the Rubiaceae family, is valued for its roots and rhizomes, which produce anthraquinone pigments ideal for fabric dyeing. Whether used with or without mordants, Indian madder imparts textiles with hues ranging from warm oranges to rich browns, adding depth and character to fabrics. Logwood, indigenous to regions like Mexico and Central America, is prized for its ability to produce deep, rich black hues when used to dye wool, lending sophistication and depth to textiles. Saffron, extracted from the stigma of the flower, imparts a luminous yellow hue to fabrics, adding a touch of luxury and opulence to textiles, evoking warmth and vitality. Through the judicious utilization of these plant-based natural dyes, artisans and designers can create textiles imbued with rich, sustainable colors, while honoring age-old traditions and ecological principles [11].
2.2 Biological organ source
In ancient times, a variety of rich red and purple hues were derived from natural dyes sourced from animals. Among these, cochineal stands out, extracted from insects, and renowned for its vibrant crimson, scarlet, and pink tones. Cochineal dye can be enhanced through mordanting with substances like alum, chromium, iron, and copper, resulting in a spectrum of colors from brown to red. The carmine pigment, derived from female cochineal insects, contains high concentrations of carminic acid, ranging from 19% to 22%.
Additionally, lac dye, extracted from stick lac through a process involving water, sodium carbonate, and lime, yields a resinous substance that imparts reddish-purple hues, spanning from scarlet to crimson. Furthermore, murex snails, a species of snail, produce a distinct purple dye highly prized in ancient dyeing practices (see Table 2) [12].
Table 2.
Biological source of natural dyes.
2.3 Mineral source
Mineral dyes are naturally occurring earth pigments renowned for their tinctorial properties, primarily derived from oxides or hydrated oxides. Among the diverse array of mineral dyes are chrome yellow, iron buff, Prussian blue, nankin yellow, and manganese brown [17]. Found abundantly in nature, minerals such as red ochre, yellow ochre, raw sienna, malachite, ultramarine blue, azurite, gypsum, talc, and charcoal black serve as natural sources of dyes.
Table 3 delineates some prominent mineral sources of natural dyes. Limonite, commonly known as ochre, provides hues ranging from yellow to brown and red. Malachite, a vibrant green mineral composed of copper carbonate and hydroxide, yields striking green tones. Manganese, a metallic element, contributes to the creation of deep black shades. Cinnabar, characterized by its reddish hue and metallic luster, offers a spectrum of red shades. Azurite, a blue copper mineral often found alongside malachite, is achieving blue tones, while lead contributes to red nuances. Aragonite, typically colorless or white, is utilized for producing white shades. Lapis lazuli, a blue rock containing azurite, calcite, and pyrite, lends its distinctive blue hues to natural dyes [24].
Table 3.
Mineral source of natural dyes.
2.4 Microbial and fugal origin
Various microorganisms exhibit the remarkable ability to produce pigments as secondary metabolites, contributing to the diverse palette of natural dyes. Bacteria such as Bacillus, Brevibacterium, Flavobacterium, Achromobacter, Pseudomonas, and Rhodococcus spp. are known for their pigment-producing capabilities. Notably, certain microorganisms have been identified for their production of indigo in response to petroleum products, underscoring their potential industrial applications [25].
Table 4 delineates some key microorganisms and their pigment-producing abilities. For instance, the red basidiomycetous yeasts Agrobacterium aurantiacum and Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous are responsible for producing the orange–red pigment astaxanthin. Similarly, carotenoid canthaxanthin is synthesized by Bradyrhizobium strains and Halobacterium spp., offering a spectrum of vibrant hues [26]. Additionally, Chromobacterium violaceum produces violacein, a versatile pigment with applications in medicine, cosmetics, food, and textiles.
Furthermore, various microorganisms contribute to the production of essential compounds like beta-carotene and riboflavin. Phycomyces and Mucor circinelloides are utilized for beta-carotene synthesis, while microorganisms like Serratia marcescens and Vibrio psychoerythrus produce the pigment prodigiosin, known for its antibacterial, antimalarial, antineoplastic, and antibiotic properties [27]. Moreover, riboflavin production by microorganisms such as Ascomycetes Ashbya gossypii, Candida famata, and Bacillus subtilis offers sustainable alternatives to traditional chemical synthesis methods, finding applications in a wide range of food and beverage products [28].
The extraction process plays a pivotal role in isolating the desired color components from plants by breaking down their cell walls and facilitating their separation into the solvent medium [29]. In recent years, there has been a notable global shift toward eco-friendly and biodegradable materials. Within textile manufacturing and other industries such as cosmetics, medicine, and food, natural dyes and colors have emerged as favored alternatives to synthetic counterparts. However, extracting natural dyes presents a unique challenge due to the complex nature of plant matrices, which contain various non-dyed constituents alongside coloring materials [30]. Therefore, understanding the characteristics and solubility of these coloring materials is crucial before the extraction process. A variety of extraction methods are employed for natural coloring materials, including aqueous extraction, solvent extraction, enzymatic extraction, fermentation, alkaline or acid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, as well as extraction utilizing ultrasonic energy or microwave technology. Each method offers distinct advantages and is selected based on factors such as the nature of the plant material and the desired outcome of the extraction process.
3.1 Aqueous extraction
The aqueous extraction method, a traditional approach for extracting colors from plants and other materials, involves soaking the colored materials in water, sometimes with the addition of salt, acid, alkali, or alcohol to enhance extraction efficiency [31]. Typically, the materials are first crushed into a powder form and left to steep overnight in a steel container to facilitate the breakdown of cell structures. Upon boiling, the compounds are carried away with steam due to their insolubility or slight solubility in water, with a vapor pressure of 100°C. Upon condensation, the extracted components are separated using an oil-water separator, followed by filtration using a trickling filter to isolate the dye from plant residues [32]. It is important to note that maintaining a low temperature during extraction is advisable, especially for temperature-sensitive dyes, as excessive heat can adversely affect color yield. The resulting dye can then be utilized in various textile applications.
3.2 Solvent extraction
Natural coloring materials can be extracted using various organic solvents such as acetone, petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol, methanol, or their combinations like ethanol and methanol, water, and alcohol mixtures [30]. This method allows for the extraction of both water-soluble and water-insoluble substances from plant resources, resulting in higher extraction yields compared to aqueous methods. By adding acid or alkali to alcoholic solvents, hydrolysis of glycosides and subsequent release of coloring materials can be facilitated. Distillation enables easy removal and reuse of solvents, while conducting the extraction process at lower temperatures minimizes degradation risks. However, drawbacks include the presence of toxic residual solvents, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions, and the extract’s poor solubility in water necessitating dyeing in an aqueous medium post-extraction. Additionally, co-extraction of waxy materials and chlorophylls can pose challenges [33].
3.3 Enzymatic extraction and fermentation
In recent years, there has been a notable surge in interest regarding the extraction of effective components from natural plants. Utilizing appropriate enzymes can facilitate the mild decomposition of plant tissues, leading to the rapid release of effective components and improved extraction rates. For instance, cellulase, known for degrading cellulose and hemicellulose, also modifies cell wall and cytoplasmic structures, thereby enhancing the diffusion of effective components into the extraction medium and improving pigment extraction efficiency. Enzyme activity is predominantly influenced by factors such as temperature and pH [33]. Compared to solvent extraction, enzymatic extraction offers advantages including milder extraction conditions and the preservation of the chemical and physical properties of active components. Enzymatic reactions can even alter the structure of certain compounds, such as Geniposide in natural gardenia yellow pigment, resulting in the production of gardenia red and blue pigments. Notably, enzymatic extraction demonstrates a 72% higher extraction rate for anthocyanins compared to solvent extraction [34]. This method proves effective for extracting dyes from the bark and roots of sturdy plants.
3.4 Alkaline or acid extraction
Natural dyes containing glycosides can be efficiently extracted using weak acids and alkalis, hastening the hydrolysis of glucosides and enhancing color yield [35]. Alkaline extraction is particularly effective for dyes with phenolic groups, yielding superior results [36]. Post-extraction, acids aid in precipitating lac dyes from lac pests and safflower leaves, while alkaline extraction stands as the optimal method for extracting lac dyes. However, the pH sensitivity of some natural dyes poses a drawback, potentially leading to a loss in color yield [35].
3.5 Supercritical fluid extraction
Supercritical fluid extraction offers a unique amalgamation of liquid and gas properties, boasting high density, viscosity, and solubility, along with lower surface tension. Despite its complexity, this mechanism effectively penetrates extraction materials’ matrices, making it a valuable extraction tool [37]. Carbon dioxide (CO2) stands out as a clean, safe, and abundant solvent alternative in supercritical fluid extraction due to its non-toxic nature and accessibility. With critical temperatures and pressures of 31.4°C and 1070 pounds per square inch (psi) or 73.8 bars, respectively, CO2 supercritical extractions typically occur between 32°C and 49°C under pressures ranging from 1070 to 3500 psi. While CO2 behaves akin to nonpolar organic solvents, the addition of cosolvents may aid in solubilizing slightly polar solutes. Notably, resulting extracts are light-colored and devoid of residual solvent traces and heavy metals, making them ideal for food and pharmaceutical purposes. However, drawbacks include high equipment costs and limitations in extracting polar substances [30].
3.6 Extraction with ultrasonic energy and microwave
Microwave and ultrasound-assisted extraction methods have revolutionized the extraction process by enhancing efficiency while reducing solvent usage, time, and temperature requirements. When plant materials containing natural dyes are subjected to ultrasound, the formation and collapse of small bubbles or cavitation occur within the solvent. This phenomenon generates extremely high temperatures and pressures, accelerating the extraction process by efficiently breaking down cell structures and releasing dye molecules. Additionally, the gentle nature of ultrasound allows for the extraction of heat-sensitive dye molecules at lower temperatures, preserving their integrity [26, 36]. Likewise, microwave-assisted extraction involves minimal solvent usage and the application of microwave energy to expedite the extraction process, yielding higher outputs in shorter durations. This innovative approach has garnered significant attention from researchers exploring new dye sources and optimizing extraction techniques [30].
Color fastness refers to the resistance of a dyed material, such as fabrics or fibers, to maintain its color when subjected to various environmental factors like sunlight, washing, and other external agents. Achieving optimal color fastness with natural dyes involves considering several factors, including the type of dye used, the substrate (material being dyed), and the dyeing method employed. During discussions in this session, we briefly explored the diverse behaviors of color fastness. It is crucial to understand these factors to ensure that natural dyes retain their vibrancy and integrity over time, even when exposed to challenging conditions. By addressing these considerations, we can enhance the durability and longevity of dyed materials, providing both esthetic appeal and practical functionality. The color fastness of the dyed goods can be broadly categorized into (a) wet fastness and (b) light fastness (see Figure 1). However, some wet fastness properties are considered optional according to the application of the fabric. The wet fastness includes fastness to wash, water, perspiration, seawater, swimming pool, etc.
Figure 1.
Classification of color fastness for dyed fabric.
On the contrary, color fastness to light refers to the resistance against sunlight. This two fastness depend on the distinct factors. The wet fastness is the competition of dye molecules in a fiber and wash liquor or active agent as appropriate. It is the physio-chemical interaction aided by diffusion largely governed by the size of the dye molecules, amount of dye present in the fiber, and mode of interaction (covalent bond, salt linkages, polar bonds, etc.) between dye and fiber. In general, higher the depth of shade comparatively lower the wet fastness anticipated. The wet fastness can be improved by removing unfix dye molecules from the fiber surface or exaggerate the dye particle size by complex formation with different surfactants. On the other hand, light fastness is the resistance to fading administered by the photochemical reactions. It is the inherent attributes of dye chromogen and cannot be improved significantly with any additional treatments. In general, higher depth of shade experience the better light fastness as the photochemical fading is less pronounced inhibited by the large number dye molecules.
4.1 Color fastness to light and rubbing
The lightfastness of natural dyes is a critical consideration in textile dyeing, with most natural dyes exhibiting a lightfastness below BS grade 5, and the majority having a fastness rating below 4 [26]. Exposure to artificial light or daylight can lead to significant fading of natural dyes over time. Color fastness to rubbing, another important aspect of dye performance, varies from good to excellent for natural fibers [38]. The resilience of natural fibers to both rubbing and light exposure is vital for ensuring the longevity of dyed textiles. Several studies have investigated the color fastness properties of various natural dyes on different fabrics (see Table 5).
Alebeid and colleagues explored the use of henna dye on cotton and wool fabrics, noting that colorfastness to rubbing was better in dry conditions compared to wet conditions. Additionally, they observed good light fastness properties in all dyed fabrics [39]. Kamal Alebeid and Zhao utilized a different cationization method for cotton fabric and achieved a color fastness to light rating of 3–4 for henna extract dyed samples [40]. However, Owis achieved a higher rating of 4–5 when using henna dye on cotton and cotton-polyester blended fabrics with copper sulfate as a mordant [53]. Shah et al. investigated the application of natural dyes extracted from Tulsi on wool and reported improved color fastness to light and rubbing [5]. Yılmaz Şahinbaşkan focused on dyeing silk fabric with cochineal-derived natural dyes, employing alum as a pre-mordant and FeSO4 as a post-mordant. They found better color fastness to both rubbing and light in pre-mordanted samples with alum, indicating the significance of the mordanting process in enhancing dye performance [46]. Mongkholrattanasit and his team explored the dyeing of silk fabric with lace insect dye using various mordants. They found that CuSO4 yielded the best color and achieved good to very good color fastness to rubbing and moderate to good light fastness [47].
Studies on cotton fabrics dyed with tamarind seed extract and different mordants revealed good to excellent color fastness when dry and fair to good results when wet [43]. Similarly, Umar and colleagues achieved good color fastness to light when dyeing cotton and silk fabrics with tamarind fruit pod extract using alum, copper sulfate, and ferrous sulfates as mordants [54]. Islam and his research group experimented with natural dye sources such as amloki, haritaky, bahera, and arjuna on cotton fabric, observing better rubbing fastness but fair to moderate light fastness. They noted that the presence of tannic acid in these dyes contributed to improved fastness properties, especially in the absence of mordants [44]. Banna investigated mango leaf dye on silk, cotton, and polyester fabrics using various mordants, achieving excellent color fastness to rubbing and light on silk fabric but poorer results on cotton and polyester [45]. Islam dyed cotton fabric with pomegranate, henna, turmeric powder, and tea leaf extracts, observing the best colorfastness properties with henna dye but poor results with other dyes [55]. Hossain and his group demonstrated the dyeing of silk and jute fabric with the aqueous extract of coconut leaves and found the light fastness rating of 3–4 to 4–5 (very good) and rubbing fastness rating of 4–5 (excellent) [56].
Lyocell fabric dyed with orange peel extract showed excellent rubbing fastness and lightfastness, with ferrous sulfate demonstrating better performance compared to copper sulfate [49]. Linen fabric dyed with kigelia africanna flower extract using different mordants exhibited very good to excellent dry rubbing fastness and satisfactory levels of wet rubbing fastness [50]. Natural dye extracted from Triadica sebifera and applied on viscose fabric. FeSO4·7H2O, KAl(SO4)2·12H2O, SnCl2·2H2O, CuSO4·5H2O, ZnSO4·7H2O are used as mordant. The values of dry and wet rubbing speed were found to be in the range of 4 and 5. Post-mordanting with Al3+ mordanting gave the results a light rating of 4, indicating fair lightfastness, while pre-mordanting and meta-mordanting gave results between 3 and 4. Amutha and his team dyed silk, cotton, and nylon fabrics with Thespesia populnea and Terminalia arjuna fruits, achieving excellent color fastness to rubbing with alum-mordanted samples but poor light fastness [52].
In conclusion, while natural dyes offer eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic dyes, their performance in terms of light and rubbing fastness varies depending on factors such as dye type, fabric substrate, and mordanting techniques. Further research and optimization of dyeing processes are necessary to enhance the overall durability of textiles dyed with natural dyes.
4.2 Color fastness to wash
Color fastness to wash is a crucial factor in evaluating the durability of dyed materials, measuring their resistance to washing. While natural dyes offer eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic ones, their wash fastness may not always match up. The efficacy of mordants and dyeing methods further influences wash fastness. Let us explore some key findings regarding the color fastness to wash of various natural fibers (see Table 6).
Owis conducted a comparative study involving onion skin and henna-extracted dyes on cotton, polyester, and cotton-polyester blends, with copper sulfate as the mordant. Results indicated higher color staining values for henna dye compared to onion skin dye. Additionally, natural dyes containing functional groups, such as lawson and anthocyanin, exhibited excellent wash fastness due to their ability to form covalent bonds with cotton fibers [53]. Furthermore, dye extracted from Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) demonstrated very good wash fastness [40]. Bose and Nag achieved good color fastness to wash when dyeing cotton and silk fabrics with Hibiscus rosa [57]. Similarly, Khin reported an improvement in wash fastness when using turmeric powder as a natural dye source [41]. Aye & Kar observed fair fastness in washing with tamarind seed dye, with good staining on cotton and polyester. Post-mordanting proved effective in enhancing the wash fastness of cotton fabrics [43]. Dyeing cotton fabric with extracts from amloki, haritaky, bahera, and arjuna using ferrous sulfate and potash alum as mordants resulted in poor color change wash fastness but good staining, suggesting suitability for applications requiring minimal washing, such as wound bandages [45].
Banna’s research team found excellent wash fastness in silk fabric dyed with mango leaf extract but poor results for cotton and polyester fabrics, indicating variability in wash fastness depending on the fabric type and mordant used [45]. Burcu Yilmaz et al. achieved high wash fastness ratings of 4–5 when dyeing silk fabric with cochineal and gall oak [46]. However, eco-friendly dyeing of silk fabric with lac dye resulted in poor wash fastness ratings [47]. Dyeing cotton fabric with thyme and pomegranate peel using different mordants demonstrated varying wash fastness results. Pre-mordanted samples showed slightly lower wash fastness compared to samples without mordants [8]. Lyocell fabric dyed with orange peel using ferrous sulfate and copper sulfate as mordants showed varying washing fastness results depending on the concentration of the mordants. Ferrous sulfate exhibited better washing fastness compared to copper sulfate. Specifically, at a concentration of 4%, the washing fastness ratings were higher (4–5), whereas at a concentration of 2%, the ratings were slightly lower (3–4). Despite these variations, all samples experienced only a slight change in color, with ratings falling within the range of 4–5 [49].
In the case of linen fabric dyed with Kigelia africana flower, potash alum, copper sulfate, and ferrous sulfate were utilized as mordants. Interestingly, the washing fastness of the dyed fabrics remained consistently excellent across all samples, irrespective of the mordant used. There was no discernible difference in the ratings for any of the dyed samples. Furthermore, negligible dye removal and staining were observed, as reflected in the washing fastness ratings on the staining scale [51]. When tested with multi-fiber textiles such as acetate, cotton, nylon, polyester, acrylic, and wool, three different mordanting methods yielded identical colorfastness results. Both pre-mordanting and post-mordanting processes demonstrated excellent colorfastness to washing, particularly in polyester, acrylic, and wool fibers. Notably, the post-mordanting method resulted in the highest ratings of 4–5 for polyester, acrylic, and wool, indicating excellent wash fastness properties and slightly superior performance compared to the other two mordanting methods [52]. In their study, Amutha and their team focused on dyeing textiles, including cotton, silk, and nylon, using Terminalia arjuna and Thespesia populnea fruits. The color fastness to washing exhibited a good rating for silk and nylon fabrics. However, cotton fabric displayed poor color fastness to wash, suggesting variations in the performance of natural dyes across different types of textiles.
Overall, these findings underscore the importance of considering both the type of natural dye and the choice of mordant in achieving optimal wash fastness for dyed textiles. Further research into the development of sustainable dyeing processes and the optimization of mordanting techniques is warranted to enhance the wash fastness of natural dyes across various textile substrates.
4.3 Color fastness to perspiration
Color stability when exposed to perspiration is a crucial consideration for textiles in direct contact with human skin. Proper fixation of dyes to fibers can significantly enhance wash fastness and reduce bleeding or fading upon perspiration exposure. Various studies have explored the color fastness to perspiration of natural dyes on different types of fabrics, shedding light on their performance under such conditions. Some natural fiber’s color fastness to perspiration is listed below (see Table 7).
Owis developed an economical dyeing process using henna and onion skin extracts on cotton, polyester, and cotton/polyester blended fabrics, employing copper sulfate as a mordant. Notably, henna dye exhibited superior color fastness to perspiration compared to onion skin dye, particularly at lower temperatures (>30°C), showcasing better color stability [53]. Vankar and Shukla conducted research on cotton and silk fabrics dyed with Hibiscus rosa extracts using various mordants. They found that cotton fabric treated with CuSO4 mordant showed good color fastness to perspiration compared to wool fabrics, whereas SnCl2-treated silk fabric demonstrated superior results [60].
Sarker and their team dyed silk fabric with turmeric powder using both natural and synthetic mordants. Interestingly, they obtained almost identical results for color fastness to perspiration regardless of the mordant used, indicating comparable performance between natural and synthetic options [42]. Umar and their research group focused on cotton and silk fabrics dyed with tamarind fruit pod extracts using different metal salts as mordants. They reported excellent to good color fastness to perspiration for alkaline extracts, with some variations observed depending on the mordant used [54]. Banna and their team explored the dyeing of cotton, silk, and polyester fabrics with mango leaf extracts using various mordants. While silk fabric exhibited excellent color fastness to perspiration across all mordanting options, cotton fabric showed slightly lower ratings [45]. Yilmaz and their team investigated the dyeing of silk fabric with natural dyes from cochineal insects and gall oak using alum and ferrous sulfate as mordants. They achieved good color fastness to perspiration, noting better results for acid perspiration compared to alkaline perspiration [46].
Mongkholrattanasit and their team dyed silk fabric with lac dye using different mordants and concentrations. While the results varied slightly, all treated samples exhibited fair to good color fastness to acid and alkaline perspiration [47]. Yang observed that fabrics dyed with natural mordants generally showed higher color staining fastness than color change fastness during washing and perspiration. Pomegranate peel dye, when mordanted with Chaenomeles speciosa, exhibited superior color staining fastness compared to color change fastness [58]. In acidic and alkaline solutions, lyocell fabric dyed with orange peel demonstrated good perspiration fastness, with minimal color changes observed when exposed to ferrous sulfate and copper sulfate [49]. Patel and their team utilized dyes from Mangifera indica and Azadirachta indica leaves on linen fabric, employing various natural mordants. The acid and alkaline perspiration fastness were reported to be fair to good [5]. Mia and their team dyed viscose fabric with natural dye extracted from Triadica sebifera using different mordants. Pre-mordanting and post-mordanting with Al3+ mordant yielded better results for acid and alkali perspiration compared to meta-mordanting [51]. Miah dyed nylon fabric with onion outer shell extract using different mordants. The color fastness to perspiration was notably good under acidic conditions, with no significant difference observed between the mordants used [59].
These studies collectively highlight the diverse performance of natural dyes and mordants concerning color fastness to perspiration, underscoring the importance of selecting appropriate dyeing techniques and mordants to ensure optimal performance in textile applications exposed to perspiration. Further research and development in this field are essential for enhancing the durability and sustainability of natural dyeing processes in the textile industry.
5. Challenges of natural dyes in terms of fastness
In comparison to synthetic dyes, natural dyes are sustainable and eco-friendly. However, they come with their own set of challenges, particularly in terms of fastness, which refers to the ability of a dye to retain its color when subjected to various external factors. As far as fastness is concerned, natural dyes face the following challenges.
5.1 Fastness properties
The performance of textiles is crucially determined by their colorfastness to light and washing, with additional importance placed on perspiration and rubbing, especially for clothing applications. While curtains necessitate excellent light fastness, a slightly lower washing fastness may suffice. However, natural dyes pose challenges due to their limited fastness properties, often falling short of modern textile requirements. The restrictions imposed by eco-standards on certain metal salts as mordants, such as chromium, copper, and tin, have further compounded the issue, narrowed the color range of natural dyes, and complicated the production of shades with adequate fastness qualities. Additionally, incorrect application procedures can lead to poor fastness properties, underscoring the need for optimized mordanting and dyeing techniques [30].
Natural dyes typically exhibit poor to medium light fastness due to chromophoric changes in their structure upon light absorption. Efforts to enhance light fastness have been explored extensively, aiming to mitigate the lack of chromophoric groups to dissipate resonance energy. Similarly, washing fastness is compromised by weak bonding between dyes and fibers, resulting in subpar resistance to detergent solutions. The influence of alkalinity on the color values of naturally dyed fabrics during washing has been studied, revealing alterations in hue and value under alkaline pH conditions. Despite these challenges, natural dyes generally demonstrate good to moderate rubbing fastness, as evidenced by studies evaluating various dye sources on cotton and jute fabrics. For instance, Samanta and colleagues reported favorable rubbing fastness for jackfruit wood, manjistha, red sandalwood, babool, and marigold dyes on cotton and jute substrates [61].
In summary, addressing the limitations of natural dyes necessitates a multifaceted approach involving improvements in mordanting and dyeing techniques, exploration of new dye sources, and continued research to enhance light and washing fastness properties. These endeavors are critical for advancing the viability and sustainability of natural dyeing practices in the textile industry [62].
5.2 Low yield
One significant obstacle is the low yield of natural dyes, which affects their efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Higher color yield is desirable as it enhances the longevity of the color and improves resistance to fading from light exposure, rubbing, and washing. Synthetic or inorganic mordants can be employed to increase color yield when [7]. Ali and Hussain observed variations in dye yield depending on the pH of the medium, with the maximum yield at pH 12 (alkaline) and the minimum at pH 3.4 (acidic) [63].
5.3 Color range limited
The color range offered by natural dyes is limited compared to synthetic counterparts. While red and yellow dyes have several sources, blue dyes are predominantly derived from indigo. The application processes of natural dyes differ, and their compatibility for mixing is restricted, thereby limiting the range of achievable colors. Indigo, for instance, requires a distinct application process, increasing both time and cost, even for secondary colors like green [30].
5.4 Color stability
Retaining the original color of natural dyes is another big challenge. As one of the first characteristics of a product, color is very important to consumers. In some cases, natural dyes have problems with color stability and brightness. Natural dyes are affected by factors such as light, temperature, and pH. So, it is hard to keep their original color. The color derived from anthocyanin is not stable when exposed to light and temperature [64].
5.5 Extraction process and time
The extraction process and time required for natural dyes are substantial compared to synthetic alternatives. Natural dyes often necessitate an additional mordanting step, making the dyeing process more time-consuming. While the use of raw dye-bearing materials ensures authenticity, it also prolongs the extraction process and requires specific setup, making it labor-intensive and incompatible with many commercial textile dyeing machines [30].
6. Preventive action for natural dyeing: improving fastness
Improving the fastness of natural dyes is crucial for enhancing the longevity and durability of dyed fabrics. Several preventive actions can be undertaken to achieve better color retention and resistance to fading.
6.1 Choice of right mordant
Mordants play a vital role in natural dyeing by facilitating the binding of dye molecules to fibers [65]. Experimenting with different mordants, such as alum, iron, and copper, allows for finding the optimal combination to improve color fastness. It is crucial to select the right mordant, as different mordants may affect the color outcome. Natural mordants, such as tamarind seed coat and Emblica officinalis tannins, have been shown to enhance the light fastness properties of dyes like turmeric, henna, madder, and pomegranate rind [37, 66]. Choosing the appropriate mordant can significantly enhance the fastness properties of natural dyes.
6.2 Enzyme treatment
Enzyme treatment offers an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional chemical processes in textiles. When applied to fabrics dyed with natural dyes, enzyme-treated fabrics exhibit improved colorfastness properties [67]. Studies have shown that pretreating wool with alkaline protease enzymes before dyeing resulted in significantly better color difference and color strength compared to untreated samples [68]. Similarly, enzyme treatments combined with ultrasound on cotton before dyeing with natural dyes have led to higher color efficiency and darker shades [69].
6.3 Co-pigmentation method
Co-pigmentation is a method used to enhance the durability and brightness of natural dyes. This technique involves combining two types of dyes, either in liquid–liquid or powder form. While the stability of color produced by co-pigmentation in powder form may be affected, dyes in liquid form tend to be brighter. However, the quality of color brightness in powder form can be improved by incorporating co-pigmentation additives and optimizing spray-drying processes [70].
6.4 Irradiation technology
Irradiation technologies, including ultrasound radiation, ultraviolet radiation, gamma radiation, electron beam irradiation, and plasma treatment, are gaining popularity in textile dyeing and finishing. These techniques have been shown to enhance dye uptake, fastness properties, and dyeability [71]. Ultraviolet radiation, for instance, affects only the chemical properties of the fabric’s upper layers without altering its bulk properties. By increasing dye uptake and improving fabric fastness, ultraviolet treatments contribute to producing deeper shades while maintaining fabric integrity [72].
Natural dyes offer a plethora of rich and intricate hues, embodying centuries of tradition and cultural heritage. While their initial cost may appear steep, their potency and concentration render them remarkably economical. As interest in traditional dyes persists, the quest for novel sources intensifies, driving a renaissance in natural dye research and innovation [2]. Scientists and researchers worldwide are diligently enhancing natural dyes, marking an era of revitalization for this ancient craft. The allure of natural dyes extends beyond their vibrant colors, encompassing environmental sustainability, biodegradability, and safety for human health. Unlike their synthetic counterparts, natural dyes pose no threat of allergies or carcinogenicity, aligning with the ethos of green consumerism. Recognizing their pivotal role in fostering sustainable development, societies increasingly embrace natural dyes and their derivatives as indispensable elements of eco-friendly living.
Despite their undeniable benefits, the utilization of natural dyes remains modest, constituting a mere 1% of the textile dyeing market, primarily driven by artisans and small-scale entrepreneurs. While manufacturers across the globe leverage online platforms to market their wares, the trade in natural dye-bearing materials and extracts remains niche [30]. Urgent research imperatives revolve around enhancing color stability and vibrancy, addressing consumer preferences for commercial products. Innovations abound in natural dye stabilization processes, exemplified by Arabi gum’s role in preserving anthocyanin pigments in beverages. Through hydrogen bonding with anthocyanins and glycoprotein fractions, Arabi gum fortifies color stability, while caffeic acid enhances color intensity by facilitating anthocyanin solubility [73]. Moreover, advancements in extraction methodologies promise cost-effective and eco-friendly solutions, circumventing the need for toxic chemicals prevalent in synthetic dye production.
The allure of natural dyes is further amplified by their reduced environmental footprint, as both processing and disposal entail minimal ecological impact [33]. Modern extraction techniques and user-friendly applications are poised to attract diverse industries to embrace natural dyes, heralding a future where sustainability and esthetics harmonize seamlessly. Through concerted research endeavors, the potential of natural dyes to transform industries while safeguarding the environment becomes increasingly palpable.
In conclusion, the resurgence of natural dyes stands as a beacon of hope in the realm of textile coloring, offering a sustainable alternative to their synthetic counterparts. Unlike non-biodegradable and hazardous azo dyes, natural dyes boast biodegradability and pose minimal risk to human health and the environment. Their versatility is unmatched, enabling the creation of a myriad of color shades through varied mordants and processes, with some dyes even deepening in hue over time.
The popularity of natural dyes is further bolstered by their soft, lustrous shades and skin-friendly, non-toxic properties. Moreover, the labor-intensive process of cultivating, extracting, and applying natural dyes not only ensures superior quality but also generates employment opportunities, contributing to socioeconomic sustainability. By embracing natural dyes, we not only safeguard the environment from the harmful effects of synthetic dyes but also uphold centuries-old traditions of craftsmanship and innovation. Through meticulous research and continuous improvement efforts, we endeavor to unlock the full potential of natural dyes, ensuring their enduring legacy in textile dyeing. This chapter has endeavored to shed light on the diverse sources of natural dyes, their fastness properties, and the ongoing endeavors to enhance their durability, paving the way for a more vibrant and sustainable future in the textile industry.
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Written By
Tarikul Islam, Kazi Md. Rashedul Islam, Shahin Hossain, M. Abdul Jalil and M. Mahbubul Bashar
Submitted: 29 February 2024Reviewed: 06 April 2024Published: 27 May 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
