Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
Abstract
The topic explores advances in innovative high-end technological developments that revolutionize energy loading schemes through high-energy storage capacity. A highly efficient energy conversion mechanism for photoelectron charging and discharging systems is engineered. The result is a smart energy storage design that is sustainable and conforms to a smart energy distribution with zero energy losses through the transmission infrastructure. The topic unpacks the choice of chalcogenide materials previously known to have exceptional photoelectrochemical properties and their innovative morphological manipulation into few-layered thin films of metal chalcogenides such as InxSey, MoxSy, InxTiySez, MoxSey, and many other photoelectrochemical materials. These materials have been used to fabricate supercapacitors, solar cells, sensors, batteries, and other superior smart energy conversion and storage devices. These latest innovative smart storage devices composed of photoelectrochemical materials have paved the attainment of high-end, highly efficient smart storage devices that have translated into the advancement of artificial intelligence and remote technologies including robotic devices, drones, satellite equipment. The two-step innovative smart energy devices are characterized by advanced mechanisms of high quantum energy packing and then smart discharge and energy deployment with minimum of zero losses during transmission.
Keywords
- Supercapacitors
- dye-sensitized solar cells
- chalcogenides
- electropositive
- sensors
1. Introduction
Recent technological developments in “smart energy storage” enable a system wherein energy storage devices such as batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells charge and reserve energy at and release electrical discharge through transmission systems of the energy transfer channels. Smart storage technologies have found a wide range of applications, including micro-scales in miniaturized surveillance cameras, codeless audio devices, and micro-chip detectors in security and medical applications. The macro-levels include power banks such as industrial-scale batteries, supercapacitors, and giant solar electropower stations. In recent years, advancements in smart energy storage have facilitated the innovative development of robotics, which has unlocked the advent of unmanned high-tech machines that perform sophisticated tasks including drones and self-driving motor vehicles that are electrically powered (EV). These high-tech machines rely on two-step innovative smart energy storage of photoelectrochemical materials of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Solar-powered public EV charging station.
Military technology performs sophisticated operations on a backdrop of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices and has also embraced smart energy systems including laser power for scanning and targeted precision destruction points. Military equipment is now powered using smart storage devices such as supercapacitors and highly efficient batteries, including, more recently, hydrogen power from a photoelectrochemical catalyzed water splitting fuel tank with a fixed bed catalytic bed. The solar-powered public EV charging stations (Figure 1), and the military laser weapon equipment (Figure 2), are backed by a powerful energy storage device that has high efficiency in both energy harnessing and energy dissipation to sustain the performance operations. Similarly, photoelectrochemical materials used to fabricate innovative smart storage devices have extended uses by companies and households that may generate their own electricity under stipulated regulations and install smart energy storage systems.
Figure 2.
High energy laser military—Grade weapon. Fitted with high-efficient supercapacitor energy storage.
Power grids provide constant power supply by optimally harmonizing supply and demand on the backdrop of the installed power capacity. Thus, the two-step innovative smart energy storage photoelectrochemical materials for the fabrication of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices guarantee sustainable energy supply. However, the use of solar power and other renewable energy sources have unstable yields, and a continued feed of electric power supply to the electricity supply grid of a community could lead to grid instability. This brings up economic, political, sociocultural, technological, and environmental challenges [1]. These challenges are therefore best addressed through smart storage using innovative technologies that allow harnessing and storing energy.
Smart energy storage will have a direct economic impact. Applications of smart energy storage technologies will improve energy access and its sustainability. This phenomenon may be overcome by developing technologies that store electrical power. The storage of electrical energy in smart energy storage systems balances the electrical load, thereby advancing efficiency in the smart generation and use of energy. Thus, smart energy storage technologies serve as backup power sources in times of need or high energy demand [2].
Current trends in smart energy storage are characterized by practices developed from scientific and industrial research targeting to employ technologies that will provide cost-effective energy for an cost-effective economy without straining resources of the national, regional, and global environment [3, 4, 5, 6]. Charge-discharge innovations include molybdenum disulfide/mesoporous carbon nanocomposites, molybdenum sulfide/tellurium hetero-composite, NiSe2 sheet-like nano-architectures (Figure 3), all structured into high-performance supercapacitor electrode material. Similarly, materials such as crude detonated nanodiamonds/titania, two-dimensional metal chalcogenides analogous NiSe2 nanosheets, defect-rich MoS ultrathin nanosheets, and Cu2ZnSnS4 ultrathin film have been used to make supercapacitors, solar cells, and counter electrodes in the photoelectrochemical smart energy storage systems [7, 8].
Figure 3.
Structural models of defect-free and defect-rich structures and the designed synthetic pathways for the MoS2 nanocrystallites.
South Africa is pursuing opportunities in an energy system enhanced economically, socially, and environmentally. Thus, technologies are being explored within timeframes that best fit sustainable solutions in electricity supply, energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, and cleaner, green fossil fuels. Thus, the current trends are drawn along hydroelectric power reserves, fossil fuels, coal gasification, biogas, sewerage works, liquefied natural gas, and pebble-bed nuclear energy reactors. Future prospects of smart storage include low-temperature superconductors, fast breeder nuclear reactors, hydrogen fuel, advanced solar technologies, molten salt power towers, and artificial photosynthesis of sunlight into stored energy [1, 5].
Contemporary research in the energy focus area seen the development of innovative technologies aimed at providing alternative sources of energy and energy storage above and below what the current market has to offer. Competing technologies specialize in one or more of the following energy storage technologies, including lithium-ion batteries, compressed air and liquid fuel energy storages (CAES and LFES), vanadium/zinc flow batteries (VFB and ZFB), and solar photovoltaics and supercapacitors. These technologies have engineering designs that have two-step mechanisms of photoelectrochemical energy quanta packaging and efficient energy dissipation through electro-current discharge [9, 10, 11, 12].
The use of smart energy storage systems and smart grids, serve converting inefficient energy distribution processes, by incorporating two-way charge-discharge technology is fundamental to revolutionizing energy conversion. This is one of the adopted strategies to mitigate the risks of the development of smart energy storage technologies. The digital technology in a smart energy grid permits communication between the smart energy storage unit and its distribution along with the sensors in the transmission lines. The technologies that power the Internet, satellite stations, space technologies, and the smart electricity grid consist of controls, computers, automation, and new technologies and equipment working together for a sustainable energy system in what is called IoT smart grid technology [13]. Figure 4 shows a sustainable energy conversion system incorporating photovoltaic solar energy panels efficiently powering the harnessing of energy from the sun, converting it into electrical energy, and transmitting it through the distribution grid to an air-compressing motor. The compressed air is stored as stored potential energy, which, upon sensory digital technology activation, is then pumped through a generator to produce electrical energy. These technologies work with the electrical grid to respond digitally to the rapid dynamical electricity demand. The energy that is conventionally used to get lost along transmission networks is converted into some form of stored energy and smartly stored for easy conversion and access [14].
Figure 4.
Overview of compressed air energy storage and technology development.
Supercapacitor batteries have innovatively been revolutionized to industrial-scale capacity for giant smart energy storage equipment. Their industrial application serves both regulatory and smart storage purposes and is a testament to revolutionizing energy conversion. Figure 5 shows an industrial-scale supercapacitor for energy storage converted from different energy systems. However, there is a risk of smart grid failure resulting in stored energy losses and limiting utilities to detect problems and redirect power automatically, leading less easily to outages and increasing the period of those affected. A smarter energy grid is envisioned to make it easier to connect renewable energy sources to the electricity grid, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The smart energy grid also allows consumers to monitor and adjust their energy usage away from peak periods, thus further benefiting the consistency of the grid. This should also assist the power utility in managing power demands by customers and monitoring power distribution.
Figure 5.
Smart energy system: Super- and ultracapacitors and hybrid electricity storage.
Eventually, the smart energy grid offers grid operators, utilities, and consumers considerably more data about energy usage, and each stakeholder group can use this data to improve efficiency. Many experts agree that a smart grid can improve energy efficiency by nearly 10%, saving the economy as much as $42 billion in energy costs. However, the development and application of these fine technologies pose economic challenges as the use of such smart technologies may lead to increased costs for consumers, especially in underdeveloped communities. Thus, photoelectrochemical technologies have played a fundamental role in revolutionizing energy conversion and its sustainability [6].
Recent developments in smart energy storage technology are making batteries a viable asset that is easy to incorporate as a key part of the power grid. The use of batteries, whether at your home or at an electric utility site, can be used to store energy when the power demand is low, and production is high. Energy generated from solar panels, wind power, biogas, hot springs, ocean waves, hydropower generation, or conventional coal-powered electricity is being used to charge up battery storage packs.
The photoelectrochemical technologies allow increased efficiency of energy packing in smart storage devices through widespread connection of battery storage technology to mitigate the fluctuations of supply and demand. Various smart energy storage technologies are being developed to advance and innovate on the current regimes of storage packs. For example, Leaper Innovative Green Energies (LIGE) is a South African company that recently developed a new type of CAES air battery, as shown in Figure 6 [14]. Innovative research is being carried out at various levels so that energy storage will undergo a major transformation in the coming decades through revolutionizing energy conversion from different smart energy storage systems. Sustainable energy sources such as wind and solar will replace coal and gas in the near future. Storing energy is a fundamental solution, but it is not an easy phenomenon. Great leaps in research and innovation have been made in smart energy storage by developing photoelectrochemical materials for the fabrication of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices or technologies that are economical, sustainable, environmentally friendly, and technologically viable [15]. Thus, it is important to understand the mechanisms of photoelectrochemical materials in energy conversion and smart energy storage technologies that allow the accumulation and storage of energy. This chapter explores the two-step innovative smart energy storage using photoelectrochemical materials for the fabrication of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices.
Figure 6.
LiGE compressed air energy storage system (CAES) for smart electricity.
2. Photoelectrochemical technologies
Photoelectrochemistry propagates the concept of electrochemical current produced when ultraviolet light is irradiated onto an electrode in solution. Photoelectrochemistry thus involves the absorption of incoming light in the valence band of a semiconductor material [16]. This results in excitation of electrons in that band to the conduction band, which in a photoanode is followed by an electrochemical interfacial reaction that uses electrons from ions in the interface to fill the holes in the valence band created by the departure of the excited electron. This state of charge separation and sustaining the potential difference is the adopted mechanism of packing electricity in the photoelectrochemical semiconducting material [17]. The photoelectrochemical materials that exhibit superiority in the sustenance of the electronic excited state in the conduction band are used to fabricate solar cells and supercapacitors. Detailed studies have been done on different materials, especially metal chalcogenides such as Ni-MoS2 and Bi2WO6 and CZTS. The molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) in the above matrix exhibits a graphene-like layered structure, as shown in Figure 7, in which S‒Mo‒S covalent bonds exist within the plane and van der Waals forces hold the plane [18].
Figure 7.
Electronic structure of a single MoS2 monolayer.
In the photoelectron-activated system of the chemical material (Figure 8), it is the p-doped semiconductors that provide cathodic electrons when irradiated with light of sufficient energy and the n-doped type semiconductors that yield the holes to act as photoanodes when semiconductors are used. In cells involving semiconductors but driven by an outside power source rather than by incident photons, the situation is reversed; the n-type emits electrons and the p-type receives them [12, 17]. However, the production of current in a photo electro chemical cell (PEC-cell) is not limited to UV light. An n- or p-type semiconductor is generally used as a working electrode with a platinum (Pt) counter electrode. Electron-hole pairs are generated on the working electrode by photon absorption with an energy level that is equal to or higher than the bandgap (
Figure 8.
Semiconductor physics—Electric field inside a p-n junction.
The choice of photoelectrochemical materials for the fabrication of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices is based on the material inherently exhibiting excellent metal conductivity, abundant surface functional terminals, exposed terminal active metal sites, good dispersion in water, and large specific surface area [20]. This quality has been predominantly found in materials called MXenes and has found wide applications in capacitor preparation, electrocatalysis, energy storage batteries, electrochemical sensors, photothermal conversion, water purification, biomedicine, water splitting, photocatalysis, and other fields [20].
The MXene is a unique two-dimensional (2D) material made up of carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrate of transition metal (Figure 9). Presently, MXene attracts the attention of researchers due to its unique properties including its excellent electrical metal conductivity, charger mediator, high thermal conductivity, environmental flexibility, and tunable band gap ranging from 0.92 to 1.75 eV [22]. Previous studies reported hybrid composites engineered in an
Figure 9.
Schematic diagram of fluorine-free electro-etching, separation, and application of Nb2C [
Figure 10.
Schematic of the mechanism of titan tetracycline hydrochloride (TC) and sulfadimidine (SFE) photodegradation over the Ag2WO4/Ti3C2 Schottky catalyst and its interfacial photocarrier transfer process [
Figure 10 shows how the electronic transitions are set off by UV light. The mechanism illustrates how the material undergoes electron charge shifts, setting potential differences that instigate charge flow, hence electricity. The pre-eminent photoelectrochemical technology innovation for smart energy storage involves the use of semiconductors formed by taking binary building blocks and cross-substituting them to form ternary and quaternary systems. The access to internal architecture of these structures is used to tune the physiochemical properties while retaining the morphological structure of the material during high-end fabrication of the energy storage device [26].
3. Smart energy storage technologies: batteries
The second step of the innovative smart energy storage is the packing of the energy into a battery system. An electric battery is a source of electric power consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices [28]. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode, and its negative terminal is the anode. Photovoltaic cells have been widely used in the assembly of photovoltaic system battery storage including dye sensitized solar cells, Si photovoltaics, Li-ion batteries, and photoelectrochemical photovoltaic cells. However, the photoelectrochemical photovoltaic contains two interfaces at which charge transport has to switch from electronic to ionic and vice versa, as in battery cells. In contrast, the conventional electrochemical cells without dyes both have the semiconductor electrode and the counter electrode immersed in the redox electrolyte. Figure 11 illustrates the mechanism of energy conversion, and it involves the incident light exciting the semiconductor electrode and the photogenerated electrons and holes being separated in the space charge region [9, 12].
Figure 11.
The basic principles of water splitting for a photoelectrochemical cell.
The performance of photoelectrochemical is reportedly modified using a wide range of semiconducting materials. The interfacial modification of semiconductors with Ti3C2TX MXene provides internal control of the transfer direction of photogenerated positive holes and realizes an efficiently spatial directed distribution of photogenerated charges [27, 28, 29]. The effectiveness of the development of green and renewable energy technologies for the continuous supply of secure and reliable energy is increasingly becoming more dependent on energy storage devices that can fulfill the requirements of short-term and long-term durable energy outputs. The innovative smart energy storage using photoelectrochemical materials is revolutionizing energy conversion toward sustainability and efficiency. However, batteries are highly attractive due to their higher energy density, but they possess limited power density compared to that required for the prolonged use of energy. Capacitors have countered the batteries’ shortcomings by inherently having a high-power density delivery but suffering a low-energy storage capacity [30].
The advent of innovative photoelectrochemical technologies enhanced the role in sustainability of both batteries and conventional capacitors by revolutionizing energy conversion. The performance gaps of batteries can be sustained with the rigorous, innovative development of superior models of two-step innovative photoelectrochemical smart energy storage materials and techniques, in the form of electrochemical capacitors, supercapacitors, and ultracapacitors, fabricated as high-end high-efficiency devices [12, 30]. The choice of photoelectrochemical materials for the development of batteries is significantly drawn from the exhibition of its novel physical and chemical characteristics, including uniform planer structure, strong metallic conductivity, effective functional groups, and consistency in the structural architecture of the material matrix. MXene-based materials have been found to possess excellent photoelectrochemical performance and long-term stability [24].
A tandem PEC is a technology developed to sustainably revolutionize energy conversion by water splitting for hydrogen production in a device architecture based on different photoelectrode absorbers, and there are two main models including photoanode/photocathode (PEC/PEC) and photoelectrode/photovoltaic (PEC/PV) tandem cells. Light absorption and energy band matching are energy conversion mechanisms for enhanced solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency [31]. This two-step, innovative smart energy storage promotes the performance of standalone semiconductor material and finding new materials. Figure 12 shows a tandem PEC cell composed of photoelectrochemical materials with applications in the fabrication of high-end, high-efficiency absorber materials connected in series and therefore operating at the same current density with an optimized configuration where the two absorbers are placed back-to-back, the photovoltaic electron collector and wired to the photocathode. Its hole collector is then wired to a water oxidation anode. It has been proved that in a dual-absorber PEC–PV tandem, the photoelectrode and the photovoltaic utilize photons from different regions of the solar spectrum to enable broad sunlight harvesting [32].
Figure 12.
Schematic illustration of the Cu2O-perovskite-IrO2 tandem PEC cell [
In an innovative technological development similar to Cu2O-perovskite-IrO2 tandem PEC cell fabrication, vanadium oxide compounds – based PEC cells have had several applications in electrochromic devices, including as cathode material in batteries. Detailed research revealed that Co-based vanadium oxide materials possess superior characteristics such as magnetic field-induced transition, strong anisotropic character, and quantum criticality nature which are their unique attributes. Researchers have synthesized perovskite composites of Mg, Fe, Te, W, and Ni-based V2O6. However, studying the chemical and structural properties of these materials did not comprehensively cover the knowledge gap in understanding the physical properties of these compounds [33].
The structural, electronic, and optical properties of nickel vanadium oxide, NiV2O6, have been scrutinized using the plane-wave pseudopotential technique based on density functional theory (DFT) with generalized gradient approximation (GGA). The parameters determined in one comprehensive research study include optimized lattice constants of the material, the electronic band structure, total and partial densities of states, and the optical properties using computational methodology. Theoretical measurements including dielectric function, refractive index, reflectivity, absorption coefficient, loss function, and the photoconductivity of NiV2O6 were calculated. It was found that the band structure analysis corresponds to a compound of a direct band gap semiconductor with a band gap of 0.172 eV, and the Ni-3d states are substantively near the Fermi level. The photoelectrochemical analysis of optical performances reveals that NiV2O6 is a good dielectric material, and the large reflectivity in the low-energy region makes it a good candidate for the two-step innovative smart energy storage in a solar energy conversion system [12, 29, 33].
4. Innovative photoelectrochemical energy conversion technologies: supercapacitors
The characteristic feature of supercapacitors is their inherent consolidation of the two-step innovative smart energy storage with special manipulation of the matrix materials to be photoelectrochemical in a revolutionary energy conversion system that is both sustainable and efficient in performance. The fabrication of the high-end, high-efficiency sustainable smart energy storage supercapacitor device requires that the material be able to pack high-energy density along with high-power density in its matrix [34]. Previous studies reported on the utilization of the features of 2D-layered structure and high surface area of materials such as MoS2 as electrodes for supercapacitors to achieve high-energy density and capacitance retention [7, 30, 35, 36].
Supercapacitor electrodes have been fabricated using WS2 and MoS2, and their energy storage and energy conversion performances were measured against same commercial materials. The electrochemical analysis revealed the pseudocapacitive character of disulfide-based supercapacitor electrodes. The materials exhibited a strong influence on the scan rate of the specific capacitance found, which was due to the diffusion of ions and the pseudocapacitive nature of charge storage. Thus, the MoS2 and WS2 are prepared by thermal decomposition for energy storage applications by means of supercapacitors and energy conversion through water electrolysis and hydrogen generation [35]. Similarly, high-performance MoS2 thin film supercapacitor electrodes were prepared using a direct magnetron sputtering technique. The innovative and novel 3D porous structure of the MoS2 film exhibited an excellent capacitance of approx.330 F cm−3 along with a high volumetric power and energy density of 40–80 W cm−3 and 1.6–2.4 mW h cm−3, respectively. The high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage device’s optimized MoS2 electrode shows outstanding cyclic stability, yielding capacitance retention of over 97% after 5000 cycles of charging/discharging. Figure 13 shows an industrial-grade supercapacitor power bank modeled from the specifications articulated above [7, 34, 36].
Figure 13.
Industrial-grade Supercapacitor power backup device and schematic for the working principle of the supercapacitor.
In an innovative development of an effective electrode material for high-performance supercapacitors, MoS2/Te nanocomposite was prepared. The two-step innovative smart energy storage device had electrochemical characterization of the as-fabricated nanocomposite electrode material showing a high specific capacitance of 402.53 F g−1 from a galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) profile conducted at 1 A g−1 current density. The electrode material exhibited significant rate performance with high cyclic stability reaching up to 92.30% under 4000 cycles of galvanostatic charge-discharge profile at a current density of 10 A g−1 [30]. Lithium-ion capacitors are the latest revolutionary energy conversion devices of two-step innovative smart energy storage, which combine the high-end and high-efficiency capacity of both lithium batteries and supercapacitors. The photoelectrochemical cathode materials of lithium-ion capacitors have a large surface area that enhances adsorb/desorb Li+, while the anode materials have high lithium storage strength [29].
5. Conclusions
The ability of materials to facilitate high efficiency in energy conversion through electrochemical mechanisms of charge separation and subsequent charge transfer with photogenerated holes transfer in the opposite direction to the photogenerated electron in the conduction band. Thus, the use of solar power and other renewable energy sources have unstable yield, and a continued feed of electric power supply to the entire grid could lead to grid instability and hence the need to embark on revolutionizing energy conversion through the development of photoelectrochemical technologies with an advanced role in sustainability. The two-step innovative smart energy storage provides for sustainable storage of solar energy converted into electrical energy and is able to be discharged efficiently in a high-end charge/discharge electrochemical system. Photoelectrochemical materials for the fabrication of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices have been synthesized in the form of Ti3C2TX MXenes, InxSey, MoxSy, InxTiySez, MoxSey, perovskite-based materials such as MoS2/Te, Cu2O-perovskite-IrO2, and perovskite composites of Mg, Fe, Te, W, and Ni-based V2O6. These materials exhibited various degrees of efficiency in the fabrication of high-end, high-efficiency smart energy storage devices such as batteries, electrochemical capacitors, supercapacitors, and ultracapacitors.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the Durban University of Technology for supporting the publication of this work through its Office of the Research and Postgraduate Support Directorate by funding this project. Gratitude is extended to the Department of Applied Chemistry in the Faculty of Applied Sciences at the Durban University of Technology for the environment and material resources for executing this research work.
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