Optimizing Transition Cow Management: Current Strategies and Future Directions

Abstract

The transition period in dairy cows, spanning from late gestation to early lactation, is crucial due to significant physiological, metabolic, and hormonal changes that impact health and milk production efficiency. Effective management during the transition period is essential for maximizing the overall health, productivity, and profitability of dairy herds. Focus areas for effective transition cow management include nutrition (both pre- and post-calving), health monitoring, environmental factors, and management practices. Strategies such as preventing and treating metabolic disorders (e.g., hypocalcemia and ketosis), early detection of health issues, optimizing housing and facilities, and reducing stress are critical for maintaining cow welfare and performance. Future research priorities include exploring precision technologies, genomics, and innovative management approaches to further enhance transition cow health and productivity. Synthesizing current knowledge aims to provide actionable insights for dairy producers, veterinarians, and researchers to optimize transition cow management and advance the sustainability of dairy farming practices globally.

1. Introduction

The transition period in dairy cows, spanning the weeks before and after calving, is a critical phase marked by significant physiological, metabolic, and hormonal changes. These changes are crucial for preparing the cow for parturition, initiating lactation, and supporting calf growth. However, this period also presents challenges, as cows become more vulnerable to metabolic disorders, infectious diseases, and reproductive issues. Effective management during this time is essential to ensure herd health, productivity, and profitability.

During the transition phase, dairy cows undergo significant metabolic adjustments in glucose, fatty acid, and mineral processes to sustain lactation and prevent metabolic issues. Nutritional management aims to support these changes. While the National Research Council addressed the nutritional needs of transition cows in [1], subsequent research has provided additional insights. Studies suggest implementing two-group nutritional strategies for dry cows to prevent nutrient overconsumption early in the dry period while enhancing nutrient provision later to support metabolic adaptation. Increasing dietary carbohydrate intake before calving generally yields positive outcomes on cow metabolism and performance [2]. Recent research indicates that the specific type of carbohydrate (e.g., starch vs. highly digestible neutral detergent fiber) may be less critical. Efforts to increase energy provision through dietary fats or to reduce energy expenditure by supplying specific fatty acids like trans-10 and cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid to decrease milk fat production during early lactation have not consistently reduced the release of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) from adipose tissue.

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in understanding how nutrition, management practices, environmental factors, and health outcomes interact during the transition period. This review aims to consolidate current knowledge on transition cow management, emphasize strategies for optimizing health and performance, and identify areas for future research and innovation.

2. Nutritional management

Proper nutrition plays a crucial role in supporting the health and productivity of transition cows. During late gestation, cows have increased energy requirements to support fetal growth and prepare for lactation. Postpartum, there is a rapid shift in energy metabolism to support milk production, which can lead to metabolic imbalances if not managed properly [3]. Optimal prepartum and postpartum nutrition programs, including considerations of dietary energy density, protein content, mineral supplementation, and feeding frequency, are essential for preventing metabolic disorders, such as hypocalcemia, ketosis, and fatty liver syndrome. Recent advancements in nutritional science have led to the development of tailored feeding strategies, such as precision feeding and metabolic profiling, aimed at optimizing nutrient utilization and minimizing health risks during the transition period.

Calcium regulation is critical for the body’s functions, with tight control needed to maintain life. A significant drop in circulating blood calcium, up to 50%, can lead to severe calcium deficiency. The body maintains calcium levels through a precise system called homeostasis, where calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (PTH) play crucial roles. Calcitonin reduces blood calcium levels when they are high, while PTH increases active vitamin D3 production to enhance calcium absorption from the gut when calcium levels are low. PTH is the primary regulator of short-term calcium levels, while calcitonin’s impact is relatively minor performance [2]. Vitamin D also plays an essential role in calcium balance, acting both as a vitamin and as a steroid hormone in the body. The transition period in dairy cattle is characterized by significant shifts in nutrient requirements, necessitating precise coordination of metabolism to meet the energy, glucose, amino acid (AA), and calcium (Ca) demands of the mammary gland post-calving. Studies estimate a substantial increase in nutrient demand by the gravid uterus at 250 days of gestation and the lactating mammary gland at 4 days postpartum, with glucose demand tripling, AA demand doubling, and fatty acid demand increasing approximately fivefold during this period [4]. Additionally, calcium demand rises approximately fourfold on the day of calving [5]. The cow utilizes homeorhetic controls to facilitate these changes in nutrient allocation efficiently.

2.1 Glucose metabolism

During lactation, a significant adjustment in glucose metabolism occurs with an increase in hepatic gluconeogenesis [6] and a decrease in glucose oxidation by peripheral tissues [7]. This metabolic shift directs glucose toward the mammary gland for lactose synthesis. Research conducted by Reynolds et al. [6] observed that the net flux of glucose across the portal-drained viscera of cows was minimal to slightly negative during the transition period and early lactation. The notable increase in total splanchnic output of glucose during this period primarily results from heightened hepatic gluconeogenesis.

The main substrates for hepatic gluconeogenesis in ruminants include propionate from ruminal fermentation, lactate from Cori cycling, amino acids (AA) from protein breakdown or absorption, and glycerol released during adipose tissue fat breakdown [8]. Studies indicate that propionate contributes approximately 50–60% to net glucose release by the liver, while lactate contributes about 15–20%, and glycerol contributes 2–4% [6]. Amino acids account for a minimum of approximately 20–30% during the transition period, with alanine playing a particularly significant role postpartum. These findings are consistent with earlier research by Overton et al. [9], which demonstrated a doubling of the hepatic capacity to convert alanine to glucose on the first day postpartum compared to 21 days of prepartum. Although amino acids may not quantitatively support milk production during early lactation, they serve as an essential substrate pool for glucose synthesis immediately after calving, facilitating the rapid adaptation of glucose metabolism in transition cows.

2.2 Lipid metabolism

During lactation, a primary adjustment in lipid metabolism involves mobilizing body fat stores to meet the cow’s energy requirements, particularly during periods of negative energy balance. Body fat is mobilized and released into the bloodstream as non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), which contribute significantly to milk fat production in the early days of lactation [4]. Skeletal muscle also utilizes NEFA for energy, reducing its reliance on glucose, especially during early lactation. Plasma NEFA concentrations typically increase when energy demands rise and feed intake is insufficient, showing an inverse correlation with dry matter intake (DMI).

While the liver uptakes NEFA proportionally to its supply, it may not fully metabolize them, leading to the accumulation of triglycerides in the liver when NEFA release from adipose tissue into circulation is high [10]. Elevated liver triglyceride levels correlate with increased peripheral ammonia concentrations during the first 2 days postpartum [11]. Research indicates that ammonium chloride can inhibit the ability of isolated hepatocytes to convert propionate into glucose in vitro [12], suggesting a potential inhibition of gluconeogenesis in vivo when liver triglyceride levels are high. This inhibition may be influenced by ammonia availability to the liver, although the exact relationship between impaired gluconeogenesis and ureagenesis in transition dairy cows requires further investigation.

Those findings underscore the importance of managing carbohydrate and protein nutrition effectively during the transition period to mitigate potential disruptions in lipid metabolism and maintain cow health and productivity.

2.3 Calcium metabolism

Calcium metabolism in dairy cows is tightly regulated by various homeostatic mechanisms involving hormones, such as parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, and calcitonin. Serum calcium and phosphate levels are maintained through processes including intestinal absorption, bone resorption or deposition, renal reabsorption and excretion, salivary recycling, fetal deposition (during pregnancy), milk secretion (during lactation), and fecal excretion. Parathyroid hormone and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D enhance intestinal absorption and renal reabsorption of calcium, stimulate bone resorption of calcium and phosphate, and may contribute to calcium secretion into milk during lactation via parathyroid hormone-related protein. Calcitonin, released by the thyroid gland in response to elevated serum calcium levels, promotes bone mineral deposition, reduces intestinal calcium absorption, and increases urinary calcium excretion.

Periparturient hypocalcemia (milk fever) is associated with the onset of lactation and mammary gland function, while periparturient hypophosphatemia is influenced by factors beyond milk production at parturition. Hormonal concentrations play a significant role in maintaining mineral balance, but factors such as receptor numbers, binding affinity, hormone clearance, and post-receptor signaling also affect mineral regulation.

Nutritional strategies aim to minimize periparturient hypocalcemia by manipulating these hormonal control points to enhance the cow’s ability to manage the negative mineral balance associated with lactation onset. One such strategy involves adjusting the dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD), calculated as [Na^+ + K^+]−[Cl^− + S^−2], to prevent metabolic alkalosis and potentially induce compensated metabolic acidosis.

Research by Horst et al. [5] suggested that correcting metabolic alkalosis through a negative DCAD diet could prevent alterations in the parathyroid hormone receptor conformation on bone, facilitating calcium mobilization from bone reserves. Diets with a negative DCAD administered prepartum have consistently shown efficacy in reducing both subclinical and clinical hypocalcemia in cows prone to milk fever.

However, studies by Moore et al. [13] indicated that while anionic salts in the diet-induced a compensated metabolic acidosis, they did not significantly improve calcium metabolism. Instead, cows fed diets with anionic salts often experienced reduced prepartum dry matter intake (DMI), increased circulating non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations, and greater liver triglyceride accumulation. Additionally, there is debate over whether solely reducing the cation content of the prepartum diet without supplementing anions through mineral- or acid-based sources can adequately prevent hypocalcemia.

In conclusion, while DCAD manipulation remains a cornerstone in preventing hypocalcemia, ongoing research is needed to optimize dietary strategies and better understand their impact on calcium metabolism and overall cow health during the critical transition period.

3. Navigating the metabolic shifts

Transitioning dairy cows through the periparturient period requires meticulous nutritional management to support metabolic adjustments and prepare cows for the demands of lactation. This phase is critical as it sets the stage for cow health, milk production, and overall productivity post-calving. Effective nutritional strategies aim to optimize metabolic adaptations and minimize the risk of metabolic disorders and immune challenges.

3.1 Nutritional regimen during the dry period

The NRC [1] recommends a phased approach to nutrition:

• Early dry period: Provide a diet with approximately 1.25 Mcal/kg of Net Energy for Lactation (NEL) to moderate body condition score (BCS) gain. Excessive energy intake during this phase can lead to metabolic issues in early lactation.

• Late dry period: Increase energy intake to 1.54–1.62 Mcal/kg of NEL in the final 3 weeks before calving to meet the rising energy demands as cows approach parturition [14].

• Managing BCS: BCS around 3.0 at dry off, rather than higher traditional targets, helps mitigate decreased dry matter intake associated with higher BCS, reducing the risk of metabolic disturbances [15, 16].

3.2 Mitigating NEFA and triglyceride metabolism

Additionally, besides implementing nutritional tactics aimed at reducing the availability of circulating NEFA for liver uptake, there exists the potential to employ nutritional strategies that can slow down the conversion of NEFA into triglycerides within the liver. Although ruminants have relatively limited hepatic capacities for disposing of NEFA through processes such as mitochondrial or peroxisomal β-oxidation, or export as triglycerides within VLDL compared to nonruminants [17], recent research indicates that providing specific nutrients to dairy cows during the transition period might enhance NEFA disposal rates, thereby influencing their overall performance.

3.3 Key nutrients roles

3.3.1 Choline

Choline, often described as a quasi-vitamin, plays multiple critical roles in mammalian metabolism. It serves as a key component of phospholipids in cell membranes, specifically phosphatidylcholine, participates in the formation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and acts as a direct precursor to betaine in methyl metabolism. In the context of transition cow nutrition, much attention has been placed on choline’s role in lipid metabolism, particularly its importance in the synthesis and secretion of VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein) by the liver, which is facilitated by phosphatidylcholine [18].

3.3.2 Amino acids (methionine and lysine)

Methionine and lysine are widely recognized as the two most crucial amino acids for milk and milk protein synthesis, according to the NRC [1]. Beyond their primary role in protein synthesis, these amino acids also play potential roles in mitochondrial beta-oxidation of fatty acids and contribute to carnitine biosynthesis in the liver. Additionally, they are involved in the export of triglycerides as VLDL through the biosynthesis of apolipoprotein B100 [19]. Speculation regarding methionine’s potential role in bovine ketosis has persisted for over three decades.

3.3.3 Essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids)

Linoleic and linolenic acids are considered essential in numerous species. Linolenic acid acts as a precursor to both docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), collectively playing critical roles that may be vital for the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and the stability of VLDL particles in cultured hepatocytes [20]. Consistent with these functions, in vitro studies using ruminant hepatocytes have shown that linolenic acid has the potential to reduce the cellular accumulation of triglycerides derived from palmitic acid [21].

3.3.4 Immune-metabolic interactions

A growing area of study in transition cow metabolism and management explores connections with the immune system. Besides the metabolic adaptations mentioned earlier, transition dairy cows undergo a phase of reduced immune function during the periparturient period. Interestingly, while leukocytes from immunosuppressed cows may show compromised function and decreased sensitivity to pathogens, they also exhibit heightened responsiveness upon activation, leading to increased production of proinflammatory cytokines [22].

3.3.5 Immunity and mastitis

In addition to the interaction between immunity and metabolism, clinical mastitis has been shown to have detrimental effects on reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows [23]. Furthermore, Schrick et al. [24] reported that subclinical mastitis similarly reduces reproductive efficiency by prolonging days to first service, increasing days open, and requiring more services per conception. Immune activation, whether through experimental manipulation or natural infection of the mammary gland, has been demonstrated to affect multiple reproductive tissues throughout various stages of the estrous cycle.

Navigating these metabolic shifts through strategic nutritional management involves balancing energy intake, optimizing nutrient composition, and supporting immune function to ensure smooth transitions and maximize cow health and productivity. Continued research and implementation of evidence-based practices are essential to refine strategies and address evolving challenges in dairy cow management during the periparturient period.

4. Prevalence of elevated biomarkers

4.1 Prepartum non-esterified fatty acids

The prevalence of elevated prepartum NEFA concentrations was assessed solely in the context of the dry-period nutritional strategy [25], as the evaluation was conducted before the fresh period in their study. The authors found no significant differences in the prevalence of elevated NEFA concentrations among the different nutritional strategies examined. However, multiparous cows in herds fed a high-forage (HF) diet exhibited a higher prevalence of elevated prepartum NEFA concentrations compared to those in low-forage (LF) fed herds.

4.2 Postpartum non-esterified fatty acids

In their study, Kerwin et al. [25] conducted separate analyzes for multiparous and primiparous cows regarding the dry and periparturient-period nutritional strategies due to differing outcomes. For multiparous cows, they did not find any significant difference in the prevalence of elevated postpartum NEFA concentrations between the dry-period or periparturient-period nutritional strategies. However, for primiparous cows, they observed that herds fed a higher forage (HF) diet had a higher prevalence of elevated postpartum NEFA concentrations compared to herds fed a lower forage (LF) diet. Furthermore, an interaction effect was noted between the close-up and fresh-period nutritional strategies for primiparous cows. Specifically, herds fed HF with high starch (HS) had a higher prevalence of elevated NEFA compared to those fed LF with HS or HF with low starch (LS). Additionally, herds fed LF with LS had a higher prevalence of elevated postpartum NEFA compared to LF with HS.

This indicates that both the level of dietary forage and the starch content interact in influencing the prevalence of elevated postpartum NEFA concentrations in primiparous cows according to their study findings [25].

4.3 Beta hydroxybutyrate

Kerwin et al. [25] analyzed the prevalence of elevated BHB concentrations during the dry period for multiparous cows. They found that high-forage (HF)-fed herds had a lower prevalence of elevated BHB concentrations during the close-up period compared to low-forage (LF)-fed herds. However, they did not find any significant difference in the prevalence of elevated BHB concentrations for the far-off nutritional strategies.

For the periparturient model, Kerwin et al. [25] combined data from both primiparous and multiparous cows due to similar results. They reported that herds fed higher forage-neutral detergent fiber (NDF) diets had a lower prevalence of elevated BHB concentrations compared to LF-fed herds. Additionally, herds fed higher starch diets had a lower prevalence of elevated BHB concentrations compared to those fed low starch diets (LS). These findings suggest that dietary factors such as forage NDF content and starch levels influence the prevalence of elevated BHB concentrations in dairy cows during the periparturient period, as observed in the study by Kerwin et al. [25].

4.4 Haptoglobin

Kerwin et al. [25] analyzed the prevalence of elevated haptoglobin (Hp) concentrations across different nutritional strategies during the dry and periparturient periods. Here are the key findings from their study:

• Dry-period nutritional strategy:

  • For the far-off nutritional strategy, there was no significant difference in the prevalence of elevated Hp concentrations observed.

  • During the close-up period, both primiparous and multiparous cows in high-forage (HF)-fed herds showed a trend toward a higher prevalence of elevated Hp concentrations compared to low-forage (LF)-fed herds.

• Periparturient-period nutritional strategy:

  • For multiparous cows, no significant difference was found in the prevalence of elevated postpartum Hp concentrations across nutritional strategies.

  • In contrast, for primiparous cows, there was a trend indicating a lower prevalence of elevated Hp concentrations in low-starch (LS)-fed herds compared to high-starch (HS)-fed herds.

Particularly forage content and starch levels may influence the prevalence of elevated haptoglobin concentrations in dairy cows during the periparturient period. The study by Kerwin et al. [25] underscores the importance of nutritional management strategies in potentially mitigating inflammatory responses indicated by Hp concentrations in transitioning dairy cows.

4.5 Oxidative biomarkers

During the transition period of dairy cows, oxidative stress plays a crucial role in their metabolic challenges. Factors such as negative energy balance (NEB), parturition, and the onset of lactation contribute to an increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) within the organism. These oxidants target macromolecules, such as lipids, proteins, and DNA, resulting in oxidative damage. Various biomarkers of oxidative stress, particularly those associated with lipid and protein metabolism, have been identified. Carbonyl groups, formed when ROS attacks amino acid side chains, are widely utilized as biomarkers of protein oxidation. Additionally, products induced by hypochlorous acid and levels of dityrosine are indicative of oxidative damage to proteins. The ratio of advanced oxidation protein products to albumin has been suggested as a sensitive indicator of oxidative stress.

Immune cells are particularly sensitive to oxidative stress due to their high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in cellular membranes, making them prone to peroxidation. Research has established connections between oxidative stress biomarkers and various physiological and pathological conditions in dairy cows, including negative energy balance (NEB), ketosis risk, inflammation, and reproductive events. Reactive oxygen metabolites (ROM) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in blood have been proposed as potential indicators of oxidative stress in dairy cows.

Malondialdehyde (MDA), a marker of lipid peroxidation, has been studied in milk, showing the highest concentrations during early lactation. Milk oxidative capacity, measured by ORAC values, has also been associated with days in lactation and energy balance. While MDA has shown variability as a marker of lipid oxidation, ELISA-based isoprostanes hold promise, especially in cases of mastitis and inflammation. These biomarkers offer valuable insights into the oxidative status of dairy cows during the transition period and present opportunities for monitoring and improving their health and productivity.

5. Health monitoring and disease prevention

Detecting and addressing health issues early is crucial for mitigating the adverse effects of transition cow disorders on herd health and productivity. Routine health monitoring, encompassing physical examinations, metabolic profiling, and biomarker analysis, plays a pivotal role in identifying cows vulnerable to metabolic disorders or infections. Prompt intervention through dietary modifications, supplementation, or medical treatments can effectively prevent health complications and enhance cow welfare. Moreover, implementing vaccination programs, biosecurity measures, and stringent hygiene protocols is essential to prevent infectious diseases and limit their spread within the herd.

Evaluating nutritional strategies provides dairy nutritionists with valuable insights into optimizing cow performance on the farm, offering essential guidelines for implementation. This assessment also allows for flexibility, enabling nutritionists to customize nutrient adjustments based on individual cow needs. By continually refining and adapting these strategies with updated research and specific herd requirements, dairy nutritionists can effectively enhance cow health, productivity, and overall farm profitability.

While interaction between far-off and close-up nutritional strategies influenced the prevalence of elevated prepartum NEFA concentrations, significant differences among common nutritional strategies were not observed. However, multiparous cows in high-forage (HF)-fed herds showed a higher prevalence of elevated prepartum NEFA concentrations compared to those in low-forage (LF)-fed herds. Similar findings was reported by Mann et al. [26] who noted elevated prepartum NEFA concentrations in multiparous cows fed a controlled-energy dry-period diet compared to a high-energy dry-period diet. Additionally, Vasquez et al. [27] found high prepartum NEFA concentrations in cows fed a controlled-energy close-up diet, as observed in their study involving both primiparous and multiparous cows fed controlled-energy far-off diets with either controlled-energy or high-energy close-up diets.

5.1 Biomarkers of production-related diseases

Biomarkers are essential for detecting and managing production-related diseases in dairy cows, including mastitis, hypocalcemia, rumen acidosis, ketosis, and laminitis. Mastitis, marked by udder inflammation, is especially common and significant in dairy herds globally. The most sensitive method for identifying clinical and subclinical mastitis continues to be somatic cell count (SCC) while identifying pathogens usually involves bacteriological culture or molecular techniques such as PCR.

Besides SCC, immunoglobulins, especially IgG transferred from blood to milk during mastitis, are significant indicators of the specific immune response. Elevated IgG levels in milk, alongside SCC, can help predict the mastitis-causing pathogen. While cow-side diagnostic tests for bacterial identification are emerging, their adoption on farms remains limited. Alternative markers such as lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and differential somatic cell count (DSCC) have demonstrated potential for early detection of mastitis.

Advancements in omics technologies have revealed insights into the components contributing to mastitis pathogenesis and the host’s immune response against mastitis-causing pathogens. Techniques such as peptidomics, metabolomics, and quantitative proteomics have pinpointed specific peptides, metabolites, and proteins linked to mastitis. Notably, proteins expressed differently in milk are being explored as potential biomarkers for distinguishing between mastitis caused by gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria.

This area of research is constantly progressing, with potential applications expanding to include other species such as small ruminants and water buffalo. Biomarkers may vary in their relevance across non-bovine species, underscoring the necessity for species-specific approaches to disease detection and management. Ongoing studies in this field hold the promise of deepening our comprehension of production-related diseases and enhancing diagnostic and management techniques in dairy farming.

6. Environmental management

Environmental management during the transition period plays a crucial role in influencing cow comfort, behavior, and health outcomes. It is imperative to maintain clean, well-ventilated facilities with comfortable resting areas and sufficient space to minimize stress and enhance cow welfare. Environmental factors including temperature, humidity, and air quality can significantly affect cow physiology and immune function, underscoring the importance of optimizing housing conditions. In addition to physical facilities, management practices such as grouping strategies, social dynamics, and handling procedures also impact cow behavior and stress levels. This highlights the necessity for thoughtful and proactive management approaches to ensure optimal conditions for transition cows.

Heat stress in the environment presents a substantial challenge for dairy cows, intensifying oxidative stress and affecting their overall health and productivity. Research indicates that transition cows experiencing heat stress during the summer demonstrate elevated levels of oxidative stress markers compared to those calving during more temperate seasons.

Bernabucci et al. [28] observed increased erythrocyte activity, glutathione peroxidase activity, intracellular thiols, and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in transition dairy cows experiencing summer heat stress, indicating oxidative stress. Similarly, Zachut et al. [29] found higher plasma concentrations of MDA in transition dairy cows calving during summer heat stress compared to those calving in winter. Harmon et al. reported a reduction in plasma antioxidant activity in mid-lactation heat-stressed cows, further underscoring the impact of heat stress on oxidative balance. However, additional research is required to fully assess the usefulness of oxidative stress biomarkers in identifying heat stress in cattle.

7. Future directions and research priorities

While significant progress has been made in transition cow management, several challenges and opportunities remain for further improvement. Future research efforts should focus on developing innovative strategies for optimizing transition cow nutrition, health monitoring, and environmental management. Precision technologies, including precision feeding systems, sensor-based monitoring devices, and predictive modeling tools, hold promise for enhancing cow health outcomes and productivity. Furthermore, genetic selection for transition cow resilience and metabolic efficiency represents a potential avenue for improving transition cow management. Collaboration between dairy producers, veterinarians, researchers, and industry stakeholders is essential for translating scientific advancements into practical solutions and promoting the sustainability of dairy farming practices.

8. Conclusion

Effective transition cow management is essential for ensuring the health, welfare, and productivity of dairy herds. The following most important conclusions can be drawn from the latest research results discussed in this chapter.

1. Implementing evidence-based strategies in nutrition, health monitoring, environmental management, and general farm practices optimizes transition cow outcomes and enhances the sustainability of dairy operations.

2. Continued research and innovation in transition cow management are crucial for addressing emerging challenges and opportunities in dairy farming practices.

3. Nutritional strategies are complex and influenced by factors, such as the cow’s body condition score, interactions among dietary nutrients, and social and environmental variables.

4. This complexity contributes to variations in strategy effectiveness across farms, where what works well in one farm context may not yield the same results in another.

Adaptation and refinement of nutritional and management practices tailored to specific farm dynamics are essential for improving productivity, health outcomes, and the long-term viability of dairy farming enterprises globally.