Perspective Chapter: Causes of Errors in Intercultural Marketing Communications

Abstract

Especially acute today is the issue of understanding different cultures in the intercultural civilisational space. The article considers the factors influencing the occurrence of errors in marketing communications when trying to promote a product in different cultural realities. The question is raised about the existence of the psychological field of culture, which determines the patterns of behaviour of members of a cultural society, their psychological characteristics and their perception of the surrounding reality. Social stereotypes arising in the psychological field of culture represent the cultural reality. Language reveals cultural reality by means of cultural regulatives, knowledge of which is a necessary condition for achieving results in intercultural communication. As a result of analysing these factors, a taxonomy of marketing errors occurring in intercultural marketing communication was created.

1. Introduction

The issue of the importance of understanding cultures, their needs and the necessary knowledge about them to avoid errors in intercultural marketing communications is becoming more and more acute today. The aim of the study was to identify and analyse the factors that determine cultural reality, to discover and create a taxonomy of marketing errors, which will help to improve the quality and effectiveness of intercultural marketing communications. The following tasks were set: (a) to identify psychological and linguistic factors that influence the formation of cultural identity and determine its cultural reality; (b) to designate the place of linguistic cultural regulatives in the representation of cultural reality in the intercultural space; (c) to create a taxonomy of errors arising in intercultural marketing communications.

Today, there is sufficient research in the field of intercultural marketing communications. They tend to deal with cultural forms and cultural differences in social networks [1], psychological and social aspects of consumer behaviour and understanding the subtleties of cultural influence on consumption [2], the influence of cultural factors on communication style preferences in intercultural marketing communications [3], etc. The question of the factors that determine cultural identity and determine the needs of society remains open. The question of the causes of errors arising from ignorance of the specifics of cultural reality remains unexplored. Taxonomy of marketing errors is not presented.

The hypothesis of the research—the psychological field of culture is a determining factor of the identity of culture and cultural reality, establishes its needs and, through linguistic regulatives, creates the most comfortable communication space for communicators.

In the course of the research, the questions about the emergence and existence of the psychological field of culture, the function it fulfils and how it influences the formation of the needs of culture in different historical periods of its development will be considered. In addition, the psychological field acts as an important factor in the creation of cultural stereotypes related to the perception of the surrounding world. The question of the place of cultural regulatives of language in providing ways of communicative action acceptable for communicators is considered. The taxonomy of marketing mistakes we created will provide new knowledge about the reasons for failures in intercultural marketing communications.

The object of the study was the psychological field of culture and its role in stereotyping cultural reality. The subject of the study was to determine the causes of errors in intercultural marketing communications.

The work is theoretical in nature with a small applied support. The research methodology was based on the following methods: (a) the method of analysis and synthesis was used to systematise the theoretical material and to process the authoritative studies available today; (b) the method of solid sampling allowed the selection of accurate visual material to confirm the cultural and linguistic phenomenon presented in the paper; (c) the comparative-comparative method revealed the common and unique specifics of cultures; (d) the descriptive-analytical method allowed to analyse linguistic stereotypes, classify them and generalise them according to the cultural and linguistic phenomenon presented in the paper.

We want to note that the research we have presented will give a clearer picture of the causes of communicative marketing failures and will help to adapt intercultural marketing communications to the needs of the culture. This will also demonstrate respect for culture and its commonalities.

2. Psychological field

2.1 Human psychological field

“Culture refers to the beliefs, values, and expressive means that are common to some group of people and serve to order the experiences and regulate the acts of the members of that group” [4]. Culture is a highly psychological phenomenon. It is a pattern of meaning for understanding how the world works [5]. To explain the psychological field of culture, we will resort to the analogy of the concept of a person’s psychological field being accepted in psychology.

Kurt Lewin was the first to talk about the psychological field [6]. His theory of the psychological field was a continuation of Gestalt psychology, which focused on the study of visual perception or “visual thinking” in personality psychology. Perception (perception) processes sensory data involving unconscious and conscious filtering. Landmark figures in the study of the unconscious include V. Bekhterev, Z. Freud and C. Jung.

В. Bekhterev regarded the unconscious in relation to consciousness and emphasised that conscious processes are perceived by the human “I” as something subjective; unconscious processes are not perceived by a person as such: “in the unconscious sphere there are many impressions hidden, which are not fixed by consciousness. The whole number of representations that cannot fit into consciousness passes into the unconscious”. For a representation to enter consciousness, it must be accompanied by a strong feeling (emotion) associated with pleasure or displeasure: “much of what fills our consciousness arises from the impenetrable depths of our unconscious sphere” [7]. V. Bekhterev also believes that the processes occurring in the unconscious sphere often serve as a guide for a person’s conscious actions.

The author of psychoanalysis Z. Freud spoke about the unconscious as the deepest and most significant part of the human mind, which is a repository of primitive instinctive urges, emotions and memories. In the unconscious, it is impossible to control the actions performed, and it is impossible to evaluate their result [8]. Freud understood the unconscious, practically as a definitions of memory.

К. Jung, continuing the doctrine of the unconscious, emphasised the collective unconscious, which influences (or in which is formed) the individual unconscious. The collective unconscious creates conditions for the individualisation of a person [9]. Important components of human mental reality are instincts, emotions, feelings and thinking activity.

К. Levin continued to develop personality structures in terms of motives of behaviour as a result of external and internal connections. Under the internal focus, K. Lewin understood a person’s own feelings as perceived by desires, goals and abilities. The external focus is shifted to a person’s perception of other people’s expectations and desires [6].

Thus, a person’s psychological field is connected with his psychic reality and includes both unconscious and conscious processes, motives and goals of actions. It (the field) is determined by those needs and affective motivations that a person has at a given moment, and depending on them, different moments of an external situation will take one or another place in his psychological field and receive different motivational value [10].

2.2 The psychological field of culture

One of the “fathers” of the psychology of peoples, W. Wundt, considered it quite acceptable that the “soul of a people” (the aggregate content of mental experiences” of the representatives of one ethnos) is similar to the individual human soul. Therefore, it can and should also be an object of psychological research, as well as an ordinary human soul [11]. To define the psychological field of culture means to speak about its integrity as a way of organisation, and it means to speak simultaneously about it as an object and as a subject. “The creator of culture is not only man, that the origins of culture should be sought in natural existence, therefore, culture as a phenomenon of objective reality functions in the mainstream of natural regularities” [12].

The psychological field of culture is constantly influenced by the processes occurring in culture. It provides cultural and psychological resilience to society because it covers both deep, hidden processes or cultural collective unconscious and all the open processes of functioning and development of society. Man is individualised in culture, so culture has developed mechanisms to influence both the individual unconscious of man and the collective unconscious. The psychological field of culture also records both unconscious and conscious processes occurring in it, as well as the motives for its existence and the goals of its development.

The unconscious of culture contains (1) the content side of archetypes proposed by K. Jung (mother, father, child, etc.), which directly affect the individualisation of a person in society, (2) historical processes and collective changes occurring in culture over a long period of time, i.e., that layer of people’s memory, which is manifested in their myths and legends, aphorisms, etc., variants of folk wisdom, (3) a fixed complex of actions on innate human stimuli (instincts). The whole complex of the unconscious is the genes of any culture. We can also refer to the components of culture: customs, traditions, way of thinking and beliefs.

1. The collective unconscious (perception of archetypes) is different in every culture.

   Archetypes are defined more formally than substantively. According to Jung, only the primordial image can be defined in a meaningful way, but only when it is realised and therefore filled with the material of conscious experience. The archetype itself is an empty formal element and cannot be detected in its pure form, just as one cannot detect the existence of instincts until they manifest themselves in something concrete [9]. Despite the fact that the collective unconscious is a cultural phenomenon, it is transmitted from generation to generation through biological mechanisms. It is a reflection of the experience of previous generations, imprinted in the brain structures [10]. Let us look at the example of paremi about mothers. Paremi accumulate knowledge about the world, they represent “autobiography of the people”, “a mirror of culture” [13]. Along with the national prototypical characteristic of paremiia we can talk about the social roles that are reflected in proverbs and sayings. Despite the fact that the representation of social roles has a universal basis, each nation has its own historical interpretation of the role and place of women in society and family, contains collective ideas about behavioural rules and morality [14].

   (China) Maternal love is like the sun: no matter how much time passes, no matter where you go, you will feel its radiance and warmth. Maternal love is a warm sun dedicating its light, and it is a vast ocean opening wide the mind. It is fertile soil that nourishes the growth of children. Maternal love is like water that irrigates our desolate hearts; maternal love is like a boat that raises the sail of confidence so that we can reach the other side of happiness; maternal love is like a shore; it is the harbour where children’s hearts are. One of the most beautiful sounds in the world is the call of a mother. A mother’s love is like an affectionate song, melodious and tenderly sung [15].

   (Arabic culture) There is no softer pillow in the world than a mother’s embrace. A shirt of cloth sewn by a mother gives warmth, but a shirt of wool sewn by a strange woman gives no warmth. I have never seen a pure drop except in my mother’s eyes when she cried. A mother loves tenderly, and a father loves wisely. A mother makes a nation. A mother is like a tree that always gives and renews. A mother’s heart is a deep abyss at the bottom, at which point you will always find forgiveness. A mother is the most sacred of the living. A mother is a school. If you prepare her, you prepare people of good nationality. Paradise is under the feet of mothers. One of the masterpieces of God’s creation is the heart of a mother. A mother is a sacred candle that illuminates the night of life with humility, tenderness and helpfulness [16].

   (English Culture) He said that the daughter would win and must begin with the mother first. Children suck the mother when they are young and the father when they are old. A face only a mother could love [17].

2. Despite some commonalities, the historical development of cultures has been individual, and each culture is characterised by its own periods of cultural development.

   For example, the Chinese civilisation passed through four great cultural periods of its development: the period of the Summer Week (“three generations”), in which the system of festivals, education in six arts and religious beliefs were formed; the period of the “rivalry of a hundred families” (“golden period”), in which Confucianism, Taoism, etc. were born; the period of Spring and Autumn; the period of the Warring Kingdoms.

3. Fixed complexes-actions on innate human stimuli are directly connected with the philosophical-religious system of culture, moral norms and laws of life in the society of culture.

The unconscious of man, first of all, is built on basic instincts—survival and self-preservation, safety, continuation of the species and development (curiosity). The formula for instinct realisation is as follows:

$$\text{instinct}=\text{innate needs}+\text{innate}\mathrm{key}\text{stimulus}+\text{innate fixed}\mathrm{set}\text{of actions}.$$E1

Culture produces only a response only to an innate fixed set of actions, which becomes “innate” over the long period of the culture’s existence. A person born into a particular culture has a certain innate, fixed set of actions to an innate key stimulus. The culture has substituted the innate biological complex of actions for the key innate stimulus for the complex-response it has created. The innate key stimulus, regardless of culture, is the same. This is the biological mechanism of the human species. But each culture has its own fixed set of actions that are absolutely identical for all innate key stimulus. The “innate” complexes of actions developed by culture for all key biological stimuli of a human being become the first step towards social harmony. Traditionally, such complexes contain animal tales or oral stories about the life and actions of animals in their “social” environment.

In order to realise their need for communication, members of society form a collective model of consciousness that includes both scientific and everyday perceptions, imagination and empirical validity, fashion, traditions and the inner world of man [10].

In each epoch of its development, culture determines its motive and goals. They improve the culture itself because each new period is supplemented with new ideas and new needs. At the same time, what has been done by culture before remains in the form of artefacts and passes into its unconscious. The unconscious programme of existence and development of culture is contained in its language. No language can replace another.

According to A. Leontiev, the motive of activity is determined by the needs of the individual. In relation to culture, we can say the following: “The motive of life activity of culture is determined by the needs of the development of society and its members” [18]. The motive is influenced by both internal and external stimuli—they can either weaken or strengthen the strength of the motive. Historically formed psychological complexes of the people act on the weakening of the motive. We are talking about colonialism in any of its forms, with which different cultures have come into contact in different historical periods of their development. External stimuli can be the impact of sensory impressions, moral categories (respect, approval, censure, etc.), and the influence of other cultures (violent or non-violent). Any culture fixes sensory impressions in the aesthetic part of the language (metaphors, comparisons, proverbs, sayings, poetry, songs, music, etc.), moral categories in rules and laws, which are also expressed through language and create a “defence” against negative foreign cultural influences. For example, foreign words are searched for intracultural equivalents; thus, the semantic field of culture is protected, and its psychological field is closed in the semantic field of culture and becomes more resistant. The mentality of a culture depends on the state of its psychological field and can change in different time periods. We can say that mentality is created and is a product of psychology.

The supreme goal of any culture is a person as a member of society. Culture creates man—its supreme goal—by setting ideal goals, distant and near. These goals are linked to the stage of development of culture.

The motive and purpose of culture are determined not only by the period (epoch) of its development. Such constituent criteria as the choice of psychological and cultural dominants, creation of new or restoration (return) of already existing basic complexes, form and method of culture development, base for development, needs of culture and its members, cultural context of the epoch are connected with the epoch.

1. The developmental era is associated not only with an established calendar but also with the established traditions that this calendar records. In China, for example, the Chinese calendar now records the year 4720. Although China has adopted the Gregorian calendar, all traditional holidays are fixed by the Chinese or lunar calendar. The Xia calendar is used, according to which the “Beginning of Spring” falls on the 4th, 5th or 6th of February each year. It is also used for mantic purposes, such as favourable days for opening establishments. Calendar cycles have meanings in Chinese culture. The Gregorian calendar “legitimised” economic relationships but did not affect culture in any way. For example, Arab culture has adopted a Muslim calendar called the Hijra calendar, which now goes back to the year 1444 and counts from the beginning of the establishment of the Muslim community by Mohammed and his followers. The names of the months of this calendar have ancient, pre-Islamic roots, which is reflected in modern culture. Culture and traditions exist according to the Hijra calendar, and economic relations according to the Gregorian calendar. In Iran and Afghanistan, now 1402 years from Hijra (solar calendar)—Persian calendar. Of particular cultural significance are the names of months, the names of which influence the course of an event that begins in that particular month. The Gregorian calendar is used only for uniform international economic relations. For example, in Japan, it is only used for the 5th year. In Japan, chronology begins anew when the new emperor, coming to the throne, announces the name of the period—the motto under which the reign will be held. The current head of state, Emperor Naruhito, ascended the throne on 1 May 2019—the Rave era began.

2. The choice of psychological dominants of the era or cultural dominants is determined not only by the tribute to tradition but also by the need for psychological balance in the cultural field.

   Igbo culture (Nigeria). It was an era of return to traditional wisdom and improved governance of the country based on it. Teaching traditional righteousness and conscience. The cultivation of wisdom through proverbs and other idiomatic constructions that contain wisdom and are lessons of pleasure in words, education and deep understanding of the world. It promotes social interaction and the ability to communicate information through the Igbo language and nurturing the traditional personality of the individual through the Igbo language.

   Arab culture. A period of cultural transition. Restoration of traditional confidence cannot be built without social trust and social capital. Culture is a complex system consisting of subsystems: cultural thought, language, education, media, artistic creation, values and beliefs must evolve. This is the dominant characteristic of the era of cultural transition.

   The culture of Japan is the era of Rave. The word Reiwa comes from “Monyoshu”, which says, “The new month of early spring and the wind of kiyoku”. The name is taken from a phrase that means: “Culture is born and nurtured when people come together in a beautiful way”. “Beautiful Harmony” is the dominant theme of the Reiwe era [19].

   China’s culture is on the threshold of the Golden Dawn era, which replaced foreign colonialism and the struggle against the colonial psychological complex left behind. The cultural dominants of the era are a return to Confucianism—cultivating nobility and maintaining a balance between the natural (nature) and the human in all things.

   The culture of Europe entered the era of metamodernism culture, which continued the chain of cultural epochs of twentieth-century postmodernism—modernism. This includes changes and fluctuations in style, ways of thinking and behaviour. Defines the structure of the feeling of the modern era, characterised by an appeal to the entire past of cultures to find the source of the new. The phenomenon of memory has once again become relevant and in demand. Serious attitude to all surviving fragments and the desire to materialise cultural layers of different epochs [20].

3. Creation of new or restoration (return) of already existing basic cultural complexes.

   Igbo culture (Nigeria). Igbo culture is a culture of people who think that something bad is not good for those who do it [21]. Returning to some good cultural practices, particularly parenting, will help to change the way of life in the country. The progress of any group is based on ideas as well as the intelligence of the group leader. In Igbo land in ancient times, there was democracy. The community was considered the highest authority. What matters is Family, Generation, Children, Water, Ani and Spirit. Everything ancient all the time stands on truth [21].

   Arab culture. Restoration of traditional trust. Radical transformation of current values, attitudes and ways of thinking. Development of values of respect for labour, time, life, freedom of the other and the culture of law. Arab cultural thought centred on the moral aspects of the cultural system. Re-establishment of a link between Arabic and philosophy.

   Culture of Japan. Create a new cultural complex by combining two previously existing basic complexes. The state of “Japanese” (in the literal sense, which is signified by the character “wa”) is a calm, relaxed state. “Reiwa” refers to the state of creating harmony (a state in which people cooperate without conflict) through the method of rei (commands and instructions from above). It can be understood as “let’s do this”. This means there are no conflicts horizontally within the team/society and no conflicts vertically; instructions and edicts from above are harmoniously intertwined with the needs for harmonious connection with society and aim to create and consolidate harmony.

   China’s Culture. Creation of a new set of cultures, by combining a new, political Marxism (reform period modelled on the period of the Battling Kingdoms), Confucianism (Spring and Autumn period), dominated by the “noble man” and Lao Tzu’s teaching of the universality of the unity of the world.

   Culture of Europe. The creation of a new complex culture (state of culture) resulted from postmodernism and modernism. Everything that has ever been created by man in culture and art can be utilised in the metamodernist project. Metamodernism accepts the impossibility of creating new texts that it received from the postmodernist era but still creates new texts. Quite contradictory: an attempt to change the impossible by creating something new. A clear example of new texts, including advertising texts, is the reversal of the historically negative attitude towards Africans to a positive one and an attempt to “smooth out” an established stereotype in this way. Metamodernism is an attempt to create new stereotypes through the creation of new texts.

4. The form and mode of cultural development in the selected era.

   Igbo culture (Nigeria). Revival of traditional ways of education and morality in society. Improvement of laws through the example of existing traditional laws of democracy in Igbo land improves governance on the moral basis of society. It is building a strong moral base for the society through the study and use of the Igbo language, including idiomatic constructions that incorporate the wisdom of the Igbo people to nurture conscience. “Proverbs are the deep thoughts of God” [22, 23].

   Arab culture. Projects that combine heritage and modernity strengthen the link between a cherished past and an innovative future. Three goals: culture as a way of life, enabling culture to contribute to economic growth, and opportunities for global cultural exchange. To resolve the artificial rivalry between our true religion and the trends of modern cultural thought, to resolve the relationship between religion and art.

   Culture of Japan. To build the Japanese leadership style and make Japanese people leaders who unite the world community. The Japanese are a people who are naturally good at dealing with foreign things and people. The Japanese have tolerance and respect the spirit of harmony. Combining human resources with different values from different regions of the country creates regions filled with happiness [24].

   China’s culture. The positive spiritual factors that form the basis of Chinese national culture support the continuous revitalisation of the Chinese nation. The special psychological complexes arising from the limitations in China’s historical development became the starting point of the movement towards a new kingdom.

   Culture of Europe. Metamodern development is assumed to develop in six different areas: (1) cultural phase; (2) societal development stage; (3) personal development stage; (4) abstract metameme (a meme is a cultural idea or symbol that is reproduced and spread); (5) philosophical paradigm; (6) socio-political movement.

5. Basis (what is built on) stages of development in the chosen era.

   Igbo culture (Nigeria). Identity crisis of the Igbo people. Moral decay is a virus that has embedded itself deeply into the fabric of our culture and has become a plague to our values, affects all aspects of life and hinders economic growth and development. A well-culturally trained child will be able to settle well and do well in whatever he finds for him (what he likes) and thus be useful to society. Thus, there will be good governance, growth and development in the nation [25].

   Arab culture. Arab culture reflects cultural elements that emerged from three separate civilisations: tribal civilisation, agricultural civilisation and industrial civilisation. This led to the fragmentation of Arab culture into different cultures and created an identity crisis. The challenge of the transitional era is to overcome the identity crisis with the help of culture as “the social glue that binds the members of one society to each other” [26]. Creative heritage is the most important symbolic resource in the age of information, and it needs to be linked to a cultural and civilisational context.

   Culture of Japan. According to the poem by Manyoshu, from which the title of the Rave era was taken, praising the beauty of flowers, the slow opening of the fingertips symbolises the opening of the bud in early spring and the blossoming of the flower, and the movement is the thrusting of the hand forward. It signifies “moving forward into the future”.

   China’s culture. On the one hand, a Confucian gentleman was influenced by traditional Chinese culture (“bow as if you are invincible”). This personality and psychological image became the foundation of traditional Chinese personality and psychological image. Confucianism has become the foundation of the country’s national cultural psychology, the benchmark of the country’s cultural psychology. On the other hand, psychological complexes: (1) humiliating ego can develop into a driving force for progress; (2) contradictory polarity: Confucianism advocates initiative and pragmatism, Taoism advocates submission to nature, passivity: (3) pan-politicisation and ultra-moral complex. Traditional Chinese culture is an ethical culture that places great emphasis on political morality. Ancient Chinese sages put forward clear political and moral standards for the future society. These political and moral standards became value indicators for evaluating society and others. (4) authoritarian dependence; (5) “Jonah complex” according to Maslow [27].

   The culture of Europe. Psychological features of metamodernist culture: (1) pursuit of truth with simultaneous guidance of faith, (2) guidance of “dialogical” thinking in order to create motivational alliances beyond the plane of clashing motivations. Metamodernist thinking seeks to define the scope of a problem in order to define free spaces for deciding on other issues; (3) accepting certain feelings and ideas as “obviously” correct, even if they are not so for other people; (4) seeking to superimpose opposing phenomena on each other in order to harmonise them; (5) experiencing the simultaneous pronounced remoteness and yet closeness and easy accessibility of others; (6) experiencing multiple subjectivities; (7) seeking to consciously unite [28].

6. The needs of the culture in the chosen era.

   Igbo culture (Nigeria). Revival of old traditions of nurturing society and its organisation for better governance of the state. Building society on the traditions of conscience.

   Arab culture. Linking the present and the future in light of the link between the present and the past and restoring the loss of much of the traditional trust that gives stability is an inherited cultural trait. When social trust develops, the importance of traditional trust diminishes. When traditional trust disappears, society is unable to develop [26]. Reasonable control of social trust with traditional trust creates a balance between traditional trust and social trust.

   Culture of Japan. Creating a cohesive society through culture and art, preservation and inheritance of cultural values, and innovation through culture and art. Building a society that values culture: striving for a society in which everyone can live a fulfilling life, nurturing a spirit of respect for culture.

   Culture of China. Building a modern socialist culture in China uses Chinese traditional culture, Western culture, and all foreign cultures as ideological resources [29]. Chinese thinking has two main characteristics: one is the holistic view, and the other is the yin and yang view. The former grasps the whole world or object as a whole and the connection and systematisation of internal factors; the latter pays attention to the opposition and balance of yin and yang and the one-two relationship in the inherent contradictions of things [30].

   Culture of Europe. The trend of cultivating the phenomenon of memory in contemporary culture. Memory creates resilience, a most desirable quality in our time. Metamodernism demonstrates the inherent constant oscillation between memory and oblivion, between perpetuation and erasure, and between the extremes that define the attitude towards the past. It materialises the memory of any traces of the past, regardless of whether they are preserved in reality or in memories [20].

7. The cultural context of the era.

   Igbo culture (Nigeria). Pre-colonial egalitarian society. General equality is the basis of social life and is built on traditional moral principles. Igbo idioms in which wisdom is hidden give flavour to words, and people will nurture wisdom and their beliefs about the world through them [23]. Wisdom is hidden in idioms, and they show how the Igbo people feel about the world and everything in it. Proverbs have made the Igbo language the language of art and wisdom.

   Arab culture. Arab culture consists of elements borrowed from tribal life and agriculture: customs, traditions, norms, ways of thinking, attitudes, values, myths and legends. Social values that follow Islamic teachings and retain their noble Arab traditions: courage, generosity, hospitality and family ties.

   Culture of Japan. The source of the Rave is the Manyoshu, Japan’s oldest poetry collection. Written by people of different social statuses. The meaning of the title Manyoshu is peace, that is, an era and it is believed that the title was given with a sense of celebration, with the hope that it would be passed on to all generations. It was a time when people lived in harmony with nature, and Manyoshu’s poems were rich in nature. It is a symbol of the unity of people into a community, regardless of social status, and the unity of man and nature [31].

   Chinese culture. Chinese culture is a culture that “respects life”. The life that is worshipped is creativity itself. “When the sky moves vigorously, a gentleman constantly strives for self-improvement; when the terrain is benign, a gentleman carries things with great virtue. Perfection and tolerance of different people, things, cultures and ideas. In the world of heaven and earth, one deeply comprehends the vitality, the wholeness, the ceaseless creative spirit of the universe and then fulfils his vocation as a nurturer. Out of this is born the ideal of the person of the unity of truth, goodness and beauty, and the process of creating life is seen as the value of life [30].

   The Culture of Europe. Metamodernism is serious and sincere; it oscillates from one polarity to another, between diametrically opposed ideas: enthusiasm and irony, naivety and knowledge, integrity and fragmentation, vivid and simple, etc. It is manifested in all spheres of human activity, from philosophy and art to politics and economics. Metamodernism is a fluctuation rather than stability; it is an ongoing discussion, an unanswered argument and represents a serious power over emotional expressiveness with its clarity and simplicity [32].

Thus, the psychological field of culture includes both unconscious and conscious processes: the motives of its existence, activity and the purpose of its development. The main mechanism of action of this field is the reaction to internal and external stimuli. The unconscious (collective unconscious) in the psychological field of culture is represented by a fixed complex of actions-reactions to basic biological instincts of society members, i.e. the innate (biological) fixed complex of actions is “replaced” by a culturally created complex of actions-reactions to harmonise the manifestation of instincts and their “translation” into the realisation of the instinct of development, the manifestation of which is possible only in a safe environment when basic human needs are satisfied. To such a fixed set of actions–reactions, one can refer to the system of worldview, value orientations, attitude to the environment and stereotypes of behaviour. All these aspects, combined, create a safe environment for human existence in culture. Despite the fact that in every culture, within 15–20 years, there is a change of generations (the emergence of youth orientations and the creation of youth subcultures), it does not mean the rejection of the national culture accepted by the majority, but only some deviations from it [4]. The conscious processes include language as a means of expression, rituals fixed in the form of traditions (holidays, food, clothes, music and other non-linguistic means of expression), and culturems as stereotypical situational linguistic expressions. Each culture has developed its own arsenal of means to respond to external stimuli, which in one way or another are manifested through language (myths, fairy tales, legends, proverbs, moral laws and rules of behaviour, spiritual foundations of society’s development, etc.). The goals of the culture bearers’ deeds are linked (or not) with the goal of culture itself, come from the psychological field of culture, and are determined by it. The psychological field of culture lays down the models of behaviour of its members. Even the presence of subcultures in the psychological field of culture includes patterns of behaviour adapted to its psychological field. Adaptability refers to another form of existence of culture. “Subculture-unique agent of socialisation in society, allows realising “rejected“ personalities in a different environment, giving them a niche, an opportunity to exist in a different cultural form” [4].

2.3 Differences in psychological peculiarities of cultures: reasons

One of the famous researchers of the psychology of people, W. Wundt, drew his attention to the psychological peculiarities of people. The basis of his doctrine is two provisions. “Firstly, the idea that higher mental processes (thinking and not only) are the product of historical and cultural development of ethnic groups, they are not determined by racial or anthropological features of individual ethnic groups. Secondly, he understood individual consciousness and ‘consciousness of the people’ as a synthesis (integration) of separate individual consciousnesses that create a new reality, the products of which are myths, language, morality and culture” [33]. В. Wundt points out the laws of peoples’ psychology, which constitute the essence of the laws of development. It is based on three areas, the content of which exceeds the volume of individual consciousness: language, myths and customs. These three components more fully represent the “general spirit” and the mental fold of certain peoples. “Thus, for example, the structure of language, which, taken by itself, is the product of the spirit of a people, throws light on the psychological pattern of individual thinking. The evolution of mythological representations provides a pattern for analysing the creations of individual imagination, and the history of customs illuminates the development of individual motives of will”. Wundt emphasises the genetic priority of the “national spirit” over the individual: “In the history of human society, the first link is not the individual, but the community of them. From the tribe, from the circle of kin by means of gradual individualisation an independent individual personality stands out, contrary to the hypotheses of the rationalistic Enlightenment, according to which individuals, partly under the pressure of need, partly by reflection, united into a society” [11].

Despite all of the above, culture is characterised by universality (culture can change and adapt), sharing, accumulation (cultural knowledge accumulates, collective learning in culture grows from generation to generation), patterns (patterns of behaviour—members of culture have systematic and predictable ways of behaving and thinking).

Thus, psychological differences in the peculiarities of cultures are located in the unconscious, which serves as a basis for the formation of a set of worldviews of culture representatives, which is also influenced by the peculiarities of historical and cultural development, language, myths and customs, as well as in the model of collective consciousness. All of them together are the reasons for the difference in the psychological features of cultures.

3. Language as a regulator of cultural stereotypes

3.1 Cultural, social stereotypes

У. Lippman, who introduced the concept of “stereotype”, came to the conclusion that man is very limited in his ability to objectively assess reality, as he lives in a world of vague images and vague pictures. In most cases, we first define this or that phenomenon for ourselves, and then we observe it, and not vice versa. In all, “the… confusion of the external world we pick up what our culture imposes on us, and we perceive this information in the form of stereotypes” [34]. We select for ourselves what our culture has already endowed us with meaning, and subsequently, we primarily perceive what we have selected from the world around us in the form of a stereotype created for us by our culture. Stereotype of people is an invisible assistant in such an actively developing world, and it helps us to know about the world even before the moment of realisation of experience of acquaintance with it. When getting acquainted with the world, we initially grasp and assimilate only those images that are stereotyped for us by the dominant culture [35]. W. Lippman characterises the nature of a stereotype as a universal emotionally coloured attitude. In addition, the researcher has clearly shown that the message transmitted by information channels cannot be adequately deposited in human consciousness. On the contrary, it will generate a stereotype, the actual content of which is very difficult to foresee, as it is conditioned by individual peculiarities of perception. Everyone’s perception depends on the prevailing culture [35]. Thus, the system of stereotypes is a social reality in which stereotypes are an integral element of any culture and influence people’s consciousness [36].

The mechanism of stereotype assimilation is an integral part of the socialisation process. Stereotypes are learnt as skills, norms or values, and in the said process, the social role performed by an individual is of particular importance. He does not study stereotypes in the context of reflexive thinking but simply assimilates and approves them. A stereotype unites similar phenomena and simplifies them, thus, the specificity of each individual phenomenon is lost, and it begins to be viewed in such a way as to correspond to the moods and value system of a social group. Stereotype arises in the consciousness of a member of a given social group as a result of a repeated connection of certain symbols with a certain category of phenomena [37]. X. Daker, N. Freida tries to find the truth of stereotypes in the fact that they at least reflect the mental characteristics of the group in which they are spread. In a stereotype, first of all, the evaluative element is important, so it expresses attitudes and values. Stereotyping as a process is a form of categorisation in which positive or negative aspects are accentuated and preconceived notions are emotionally coloured [37]. However, we should not attribute the emergence of stereotypes to human limitations and prejudice but should consider them as the result of interrelated and naturally occurring processes of information processing [38]. О. Resch pointed out the high level of stability of stereotypes that are practically impossible to verify and replace. The process of identification of a cultural group is carried out on the basis of “reading the picture” (stereotypes) displayed in its collective memory [39]. Stereotypes are idiosyncratic, i.e., changeable in space and time.

Perception of cultures, according to M. Robert and F. Tilman, is subject to certain regularities close to the laws of individual perception [40], namely: (1) selectivity (attention is paid to certain manifestations of spiritual or material culture); (2) consideration of individual properties of an object in a holistic system, at the same time individual features of culture may be distorted due to the influence of another culture; (3) projectivity (perception is projected onto one’s own cultural integrity), as a result of which there is a transfer of certain features of one’s culture to another.

Autostereotypes and heterostereotypes are related to the perception of one’s own and another culture. Autostereotypes are related to the attitude towards one’s own culture. Autostereotypes and heterostereotypes are ethnic stereotypes. According to N. Ufimtseva, ethnic stereotypes are “inaccessible to self-reflection of a ‘naïve’ member of society and are facts of behaviour and collective unconsciousness, they cannot be specially taught, while cultural stereotypes are accessible to self-reflection and are facts of behaviour, individual unconsciousness and consciousness, they can already be taught” [41]. Heterostereotypes are peculiar both to the perception of representatives of the dominant culture of a different intra-territorial culture, and of a different culture, territorially close or distant. Heterostereotypes are value judgements about other people. In the content of heterostereotypes, one should distinguish a relatively stable cognitive core—a set of ideas about the appearance of representatives of another nation, about its historical past, about the peculiarities of lifestyle, about labour skills, as well as a number of variable judgements about the communicative and moral qualities of this nation [42]. These perceptions reflect not one but two realities. The content of the same national trait in relation to one’s own culture and another culture is different. For example, “openness”—in relation to one’s own culture, in particular, we are talking about individual cultures, can be considered as sociability, and in relation to another culture as sanctimony or pretence, or “trustworthiness” as openness (for one’s own culture), simple-mindedness, unpretentiousness (in the sense of not very clever, shallow) for another culture. In addition, the heterostereotype implies a global negative evaluation of the other. For example, English-speaking culture, with its historically developed colonial connotation, has created many such hetero- stereotypes in relation to representatives of African cultures and many Asian cultures, which have been adopted by general European civilisation. Stereotypes reflect an oversimplified view of representatives of other cultures, exaggerating similarities between them and ignoring differences [43]. All kinds of stereotypes are present in any society: social, psychological, ethnic, cultural and political.

Thus, on the one hand, stereotype simplifies the cognition of another and does not always carry a negative assessment of the other; on the other hand, stereotyping leads to the emergence of prejudice, which negatively affects intercultural communication.

3.2 Cultural language stereotypes

Language shows how people think and how everyone perceives the world they are in [44]. Stereotypes as patterns of perceptions and beliefs common to the whole culture are directly related to language, are its content side and are identified with the picture of the world—cultural and cognitive—contain one or several objects of evaluation: anatomical, cognitive, mental, personal, etc. characteristics of people, national traditions, everyday habits and many others [45]. From the point of view of intercultural communication, stereotypes are, first of all, a nationally labelled phenomenon containing cultural codes and mental attitudes of the collective in whose consciousness they originated [46]. When meeting representatives of other cultures, a person shows a natural tendency to perceive their behaviour from the position of his/her own. There are two types of stereotypes: stereotypes created intentionally for the purpose of pursuing national interests and are used to construct a political or advertising image (intentional stereotype), and spontaneous stereotypes that are not related to the pursuit of national interests but are associated with the psychological perception of “one’s own-other” (spontaneous stereotype). Stereotypes are realised in appropriate linguistic units, repeated positive or negative judgements concerning one object, and a mass and unconscious understanding of them. As for directly valid linguistic material, various paremiological units, phraseological units, “syntactic constructions that can be interpreted as means of denoting ethnic stereotypes” can serve as it [45]. As a mental and linguistic phenomenon, stereotypes are manifested in the speech, mentality and behaviour of cultural representatives. Speech stereotypes (vocatives, etiquette clichés, various kinds of etiquette stereotypes and idioms) together form speech etiquette. Besides paralinguistic signs of communication (non-verbal reactions), first of all, prosodic elements (tone of communication, timbre of voice and intonational design of an utterance) play an important role in it. Paralinguistic signs of communication also indicate the register of communication, such as whether the communication partner is friendly, polite, or officially neutral. Stereotypical representations at the mental level are value-oriented, often realised in language by means of expressive and evaluative vocabulary [46]. Y. Sorokin notes that mental stereotypes (evaluation of oneself and strangers) not only predetermine readiness or unreadiness for verbal and non-verbal communication but can also influence the nature of communication itself, making it conflicting or harmonising [47].

One of the main reasons for the emergence of cultural stereotypes is the human tendency to divide people into their own and strangers. “Images of the Stranger are inextricably linked to images of the self, to personal or collective perceptions of ourselves. Representations of the Stranger are located between the two poles of hostility and fascination. Images of the Alien are social constructs” [48]. In the field of perception of the Alien, the degree of stereotyping depends on the amount of knowledge about another culture [43]. The assimilation of cultural stereotypes or invariant images of the world picture occurs in the process of socialisation, so culture “is always concrete-human, i.e. ethnic” [41].

Thus, cultural stereotypes are expressed through paramiological units, phraseological phrases, language clichés, speech etiquette (kulturams), comparisons, etc. In intercultural communication, it is important to distinguish the levels of understanding of texts because stereotypes in social communication play a dual role: they are relevant to the interpretation of both semantic and pragmatic information. Semantic information is related to the fact that stereotypes (like myths) represent information about the world in a generalised form. The pragmatic intentions of the message sender are based on the interpretation of its meaning, and in speech communication, it is not uncommon for understanding at the semantic level to be less important than understanding at the pragmatic level, i.e. recognising the communicative intention of the partner. This is the character of many proverbs and sayings, as well as other “ritualisms”, to which in natural conditions of speech communication, it is often difficult to attribute a specific nominative meaning, but which are easily interpreted in terms of the implementation of certain social and situational relations between speech partners [49]. In the process of intercultural communication, the objects given in perception are linguistic meanings.

“As for the superphrase meaning,… a participant in an information exchange can access its content either on the basis of actualising the broader foundation of his knowledge of the world or through intuition. This means that the abstract meaning of a stereotype/ /myth appears rather as a blurred semantic stain, i.e. a multitude of semantic, not always distinct interpretations. The blurred, implicit nature of most stereotypes often becomes the reason for their reinterpretation, when the attitudes of the information sender are reinterpreted by the communicative partner taking into account his own schemes of presentation” [49].

In intercultural communication, there is a share of egocentrism. It is peculiar, first of all, for contact individual culture—individual culture and individual culture—collective culture. Egocentrism is practically weakly expressed in the contact collective culture—collective culture. In communicative behaviour based on cultural and subcultural stereotypes, “two types of egocentrism are distinguished: (1) extensive, i.e. based on the absolute cultivation of one’s own point of view; (2) intensive, i.e. based on the benefit that the subject derives for himself from the cultivation of the partner’s point of view” [48]. The third type of intercultural interaction is focused on the cooperation of viewpoints that are beneficial for both communicators.

Stereotypical situations and stereotypical images are stored in the consciousness of a culture bearer in the form of behavioural stamps or mental clichés. For successful communication, it is important not only to know the foreign language but also the culture in terms of the truth or falsity of various ethnic and cultural stereotypes, which is necessary to understand the picture of the world of the people.

3.3 Linguistic cultural regulatives

Regulativity is a type of purposeful activity. A regulative is understood as a unit of information contained in mind (in the mental space or, according to W. Humboldt, in the “psychosphere”) of a speaking person (participant of dialogical communication), which, influencing the course of certain events in the process of communication, contributes both to the emergence of its “copies” in the minds of the participants of communication and to the generation of the whole system of regulative units used by interlocutors in dialogical interaction, developing according to a typical scenario [50]. Language is unique and, at the same time, universal. Uniqueness implies the presence of characteristics and properties that other languages do not possess.

Language is a means of revealing cultural reality. When language is used in the context of communication, it merges with culture and expresses its reality. According to Sepir-Whorf’s hypothesis of linguistic relativity, each language shows a typical symbolic world of culture, which reflects the realities of the mind, inner experience and the needs of its speakers to think and perceive the environment differently; hence, the patterns of behaviour are different. For example, the Eskimo language has 20 words to describe snow because snow can affect their lives and safety. Classical Arabic supposedly has about 6000 words related to camel, namely warning, body, structure, sex, age, movement, condition and equipment. Saharan natives have 200 words to describe dates that are important to them and 20 words to describe dunes. The Zulu language has 39 words for the colour green, demonstrating the Zulu people’s concern for nature and the places they pass through. The English word “rice” in the Indonesian language has three words with different meanings [51]. In the Igbo language (Nigeria), there are “twin” words, which are idioms that are often used in speech such as “Nose and Mouth” which means “people live close to each other” or “people have a deep beautiful relationship”. In speech, a person might say that the way he or she lived until old age is similar to Nose and Mouth. The meaning of this sentence would be: everything has already happened. If it is bad, it is already done, if it is good, something will arrive and he will share in that profit [52].

Language cultural regulatives are displayed, first of all, in the functions of language. They regulate both verbal linguistic means and non-verbal means: tone of voice, intonation, style of speech, body language and facial expression (facial expressions). For example, in many Eastern cultures, “I love you” is not expressed through appropriate words but through sincerity and deep consideration for the person. Despite the inherent universality of the functions of each language, each culture has its own content-meaning system and ways of representation. Let us single out as common such regulators: (1) exposure to the environment that preceded the situation; (2) control over the event (approval, refusal, etc.); (3) representation of facts (ways, forms, creation of a factual system); (4) maintenance of relationships (appropriateness (or prohibition) of idioms, jokes, etc. linguistic means presented by the language of the culture according to the situation); (5) questioning (how to ask the right question and get new information or new knowledge); (6) ways of expressing feelings, emotions, i.e. demonstration of mental reality; (7) imagery to create an image-information or information-image system. Culture determines a person’s way of life. People learn to think, feel, believe and seek what is appropriate to their culture. Language, friendships, customs, communication practices, social actions, economic activities, politics, technology, are all based on cultural patterns. Culture also determines the coding of messages, the meaning of the message sent, what to pay attention to, and how to interpret the message. Cultural diversity brings diversity to communication practices [51].

All identified general regulatives have their own subordinate system of regulators. Thus, the type of regulative of influence on the environment contains stimulating regulatives, which are intended to reflect the strategic search for compromises between partners if certain communicative discrepancies or failures are detected, and regulatives of perception, which are intended to express the addressee’s response to the cooperation proposed by the speaker with a certain, somewhat neutral share of evaluation of such cooperation. The event control regulative contains regulatives of agreement, corrective plan actions and disagreement. The consent regulatives express the addressee’s response to the proposed cooperation with a certain positive evaluation, which can extend both to the fact of the proposal of cooperation and to the thematic content of the act of interaction. The role of regulatory actions of the corrective plan comes down to the fact that their response to the initiating step ensures the further course of communication, which, depending on the specific response actions—confirming or denying—will show either a successful transition to a new stage (phase) in the joint realisation of the goal, or a return to the initial point of interaction (stage or phase, or perhaps to its separate moments). The disagreement regulators, to a certain extent, characterise the initiator’s contribution to the successful implementation of the set tasks and goals and are used to assess the content side of the initiative step, encourage the speaker to constantly monitor the level of feedback from the partner and maintain it at the appropriate level, maximally explicating his activity to strengthen it [50].

4. Marketing errors within culture and in intercultural communication

According to Damhed Abdel Aziz Rabi, culture finds it difficult to develop in isolation from its framework. Civilisation implies an economic model created on the basis of culture. It is more difficult for a civilisation to develop in isolation from its mass culture. Which forces each civilisation to create its own culture. Every civilisational development imposes its logic on the dominant culture in the society and forces it to develop from its traditional roots because culture by nature seeks stability [27]. When developing marketing concepts and strategies to avoid mistakes in promoting a product in a particular cultural environment, it is important to consider such aspects:

4.1 Type of culture: individualistic or collectivistic

Errors:

1. How success is understood and what is meant by success in these types of cultures. What are the principles of success (these are different in each collectivist culture).

2. Which attributes of success are important and which are subordinate (these will be different in each culture. For example, what is important to one culture may be subordinate to another culture. And vice versa).

3. Understanding success in different segments of society (within a culture) is primarily about the individualistic type of culture. The servant, farmer, businessman, etc., have different understanding of success and, accordingly, different attributes.

4. Needs of members of society of individualistic cultures: traditionally, it is the satisfaction of basic human needs + superstructure over them in the form of attributes of individual success, for example, various kinds of collections or various types of luxury attributes, which are influenced by the unconscious field of culture.

5. Needs of society members of collectivistic cultures: traditionally, these are spiritual needs to maintain the “homeostasis” of the culture, which are based on the needs of emotional-sensual ties between society members (with the predominance of kinship ties or with the predominance of corporate ties or a mix of both types of ties), since the system of perception of the world by culture members within the culture itself is identical.

4.2 The psychological field of culture

Errors:

1. Incorrect assessment of the psychological field of a culture, its unconscious, conscious processes, the motives of the culture and its goals in a given period.

2. Misunderstanding or denial of the period (epoch) of culture’s development and its needs at a given stage. Every culture, first of all collectivistic culture, exists in its period of development. Each culture has them differently.

3. Misunderstanding/denial of the psychological dominants of the cultural epoch.

4. Misunderstanding/denial of the culture’s unconscious, which is expressed in linguistic idiomatic constructions. It is different in every culture.

5. Misunderstanding/denial of the conscious culture, the external attributes of which are clothing, traditions, rituals, etc., stereotypes, language clichés and culturams.

6. Misunderstanding/denial of the motives of the culture’s existence in its chosen period of development (what to strive for and what it wants to develop).

7. Misunderstanding/denial of the internal goals of the culture’s development and the ways in which it intends to achieve these goals).

8. The same perception of all subcultures, particularly the youth subculture, regardless of their cultural affiliation. A subculture within a culture is influenced by the culture. Its influence is very strong. The needs of subcultures are different for each culture despite free Internet communication. “Memory” of culture remains dominant in this situation.

4.3 Cultural stereotypes

Errors:

1. Denial/unawareness/misunderstanding of cultural stereotypes of behaviour.

2. Denial/unawareness/misunderstanding of cultural stereotypes about one’s own culture expressed in language.

3. Denial/unawareness/ misunderstanding of cultural stereotypes about another culture expressed in language.

4. Imposition of culturally alien stereotypes.

5. Denial/unawareness/understanding of the thinking of the culture’s representatives.

6. Denial/unawareness/ununderstanding of ethnic stereotypes existing within the culture.

7. Denial/unawareness/understanding, inability to distinguish spontaneous stereotypes from intensional stereotypes.

8. Substitution by intensional stereotypes of spontaneous stereotypes both inside and outside the culture.

9. Imposition of intensional stereotypes of one culture on another culture.

10. Failure to “feel” the language through which a cultural stereotype manifests itself, e.g. language and behavioural etiquette. “One does not go into a strange monastery with its charter” (In a strange monastery with its charter does not go).

4.4 Linguistic cultural regulatives

Errors:

1. Ignorance/misunderstanding of the system of universal language regulatives and its important place in communication.

2. Ignorance/misunderstanding of the subsystem of linguistic regulatives of culture.

3. Imposing an English language regulative of culture and trying to “fit” it into the framework of another language culture, even though English may be the official language in that country. E.g. India, African countries, etc.

4. Ignorance/ignorance of the paralinguistic regulatives of culture.

5. Inability to “dock” the regulatives of culture in one communicative situation.

5. Discussion of the research results

Culture shapes the inner world of a person [1]. The concept of the psychological field of culture is closely related to the psychological features of culture bearers generated by it. Modern psychologists of culture believe that culture can be learnt. If we talk about external forms of culture manifestation, in particular rituals and clothes, we agree with their opinion, since we are talking about the level of consciousness. “A huge layer of culture is “closed” at the unconscious level of the psychological field”. The question: can the unconscious be trained? remains open. Adopting a model of the behaviour of a culture does not mean understanding it; it means getting closer to its understanding in order to correspond to the external signs of the models of behaviour accepted in this or that environment. However, the unconscious of culture hides deep complexes of philosophical awareness of the world and forms the worldview of culture bearers. These complexes are associative with the deep meanings of the culture, which are manifested in language by means of meaning-images individually developed by each culture. In individualistic cultures, the individual is seen as an independent and individual being who is more important than the group and for whom individual success is important. Collectivist cultures, on the contrary, strive to achieve group goals; for them, it is important to connect with other people and have mutual obligations. These attitudes are “stitched” into the unconscious of the culture’s bearers. Question: can a person of an individualistic culture understand the worldview of a person of a collectivistic culture, even by adopting the external attributes of the culture (rituals and dress)? Can a person of a collectivistic culture understand the worldview of a person of an individualistic culture by adopting its external attributes? We assume that no. According to V. Bekhterev’s research, each person has his or her own volume of consciousness. This volume of consciousness consists of perceptions received in childhood and adolescence. The perceptions are fixed by means of language. No language in the world can replace another language. If a child has been in two cultural environments equally—speaks the languages of both parents—its volume of consciousness can accommodate the behaviours of the two cultures. At the same time, the same child must be in both cultural societies. The volume of consciousness of a person who grew up in one cultural environment includes only one of it. His volume of consciousness cannot “let in” the unconscious models of another culture, so his consciousness is immune to the worldview of that other culture. Such a person, being in a foreign cultural environment, can only try to understand the culture, approaching it through the external forms of its expression; psychological differences between cultures are “hidden” in its deep unconscious layer. The question: How can a person of one culture and one language understand the worldview of a person of another culture and another language? becomes relevant today (Table 1).

Psychological field of culture
Components	Unconscious complex	Conscious complex
	Inborn reactions/events imprinted in people’s memory	Motives and goals
Element 1	Original image (archetype filled with content)	Developmental epoch
Element 2	Periods of cultural development	Psychological dominants of an epoch
Element 3	Developed actions (moral norms) on innate stimuli (instincts)	Creation of new or restoration of already existing basic complexes of culture
Element 4		Form and way of culture development in the chosen epoch
Element 5		On what the epoch of development is built (basis)
Element 6		The need for culture in the chosen epoch
Element 7		The cultural context of the epoch

Table 1.

Components of the psychological field of culture.

Stereotyping by the culture of the surrounding world takes place in its psychological field, which consists of both the unconscious layer, which determines the behaviour of members of a cultural society, and the conscious layer, which reflects the motives and goals of the development of culture and its activities in a certain historical period. Ethnic stereotypes are persistent, are at the level of the unconscious, cannot be learnt and are difficult to understand. They are stable and practically cannot be verified and replaced. Cultural stereotypes, on the contrary, can be learnt and understood; for example, intensional stereotypes are created to pursue national interests and are used to construct a political or advertising image. It seems obvious that the needs of society are based mainly on ethnic stereotypes, so they remain unchanged throughout the existence of culture; intensional stereotypes change only the form and way of presenting these needs. The process of identification of a cultural group is carried out on the basis of “reading stereotypes”. All spheres of human life are subject to stereotyping, and cultural reality consists of a huge number of intertwined stereotypes—images, symbols, perception, reaction to perception, emotions, etc. (Table 2).

Stereotypes
Group	Social		Linguistic		Communicative
Subgroup	Ethnic (innate)	Constructed	Spontaneous	intentional	Verbal	Paralinguistic
Content	Autostereotypes: A concrete image of “one’s own”		Psychological perception one’s own-another		Representation of the image one’s own
Means of expression			Paremiological units, phraseological phrases	Slogans, fakes, advertising, etc.	Vocative; Etiquette clichés; Etiquette stereotypes; Idioms	Tone; communication; voice timbre; intonation of syntactic constructions
Content	Heterostereotypes: generalised image of a “stranger”		Psychological perception of one’s own- stranger		Representation of the image of one’s own-stranger
Means of expression			Paremiological units, phraseological phrases	Fakes, intentional construction of a stereotype on the basis of antonymy	Vocative; Etiquette clichés; Etiquette stereotypes; Idioms	Tone; communication; voice timbre; intonation of syntactic constructions

Table 2.

Cultural stereotypes.

Intercultural civilisational space is, first of all, a space of communication. Language regulatives provide a representation of culture in this space and correct the model of the behaviour of a representative of a foreign culture in their cultural environment. They open the door for others to their cultural reality. Applied communication styles were also discussed in [3], but the focus was on adapting the communication style to the preferences of service recipients. But it is hardly possible to adapt the communication style without knowing the cultural regulatives of a country, its stereotypes and therefore its goals at this stage of development. Cultural regulatives are the first step to a balanced intercultural contact, but they cannot influence the continuation and needs of such contact. Other mechanisms are at work in this case, which require research.

The taxonomy of marketing errors is created based on the analysis of all these factors and includes the whole set of errors that prevent the successful promotion of a product in a foreign cultural environment.

We limited ourselves to the representation of several cultures. The sample was made in such a way as to cover different continents. However, it was enough to indicate the differences between cultures in terms of their needs and to highlight a set of marketing errors.

The questions remain open: how can knowledge cover all cultures of the world? Can a representative of a foreign culture be an effective mediator in marketing communication? We tend to assume that no. As stated in the study, a person thinks in terms of the birth culture and perceives the world through its value system. There can be a conflict of concepts—product concept and perception of the concept by a foreign cultural representative, etc. This is the topic of a separate study.

Further research can be directed to the development of mechanisms for understanding another culture and its needs, as well as to the description of culture-based economic models of society. This will help to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings between cultural communities in the modern civilisational space.

6. Conclusions

Today, intercultural communication occupies an important place in the economic relations system, particularly in marketing communications. For the success of such communications, it is necessary to take into account several factors, ignorance of which leads to errors: (a) each culture has its own psychological field, which forms models of behaviour of its society members and determines their mental characteristics and specificity of perception of the surrounding reality; (b) the economic model of society is closely connected with its culture; (c) each culture has entered its own era of development, which determines its needs, including socio-economic needs; (d) despite the Internet access, these mechanisms are different for each culture; (e) stereotypes that have emerged in the psychological field reflect cultural reality and are not subject to change or influence from the outside; (f) only the form of cultural representation changes in subcultures, but cultural reality remains unchanged; (g) language expresses and reflects cultural reality both within culture in multicultural societies and outside culture, in intercultural space; (h) language regulatives occupy an important place in intercultural communication, as they reflect the reality of culture and contain the following elements.