Shifting Tides: Unraveling the Sociological Fabric of Climate Change

Abstract

This study shifts its focus from the predominant biophysical perspective of climate change (CC) to a sociological lens, particularly in the context of the Ramechhap district, Nepal. It delves into the local perceptions of CC and emphasizes its sociological impact on livelihoods. Employing a constructivist theory and the complex human—environment systems, the research extensively explores institutional, structural, and societal pathways of adaptation. The study employs a qualitative data, utilizing purposive sampling and ethnographic methods such as observation, case studies, KIIs, and FGDs. The findings underscore the challenges faced by farmers in the Ramechhap, particularly those dependent on forest, agriculture and livestock, due to the impacts of global warming. Issues such as increased drought, temperature fluctuations, altered monsoons, and other climate-induced changes emerge as disruptive factors affecting the agricultural system, rendering it vulnerable and less productive. To counteract these climate risks, farmers in the Ramechhap employ adaptive measures grounded in traditional and local knowledge concurrently integrating new technologies. Adjustments to crop varieties based on climate disturbances and the establishment of collective networks and social relations through the exchange of experiences are crucial strategies. The research contributes valuable sociological insights into the local dynamics of CC and proposes holistic CC policies.

1. Introduction

In the relentless pursuit of unraveling the multifaceted implications of climate change (CC), this study pioneers a distinctive approach, shifting its gaze from the prevailing biophysical paradigm to a sociological lens. Nestled in the heart of this exploration is the Ramechhap district in Nepal, a locale where the research probes local perceptions of CC and meticulously underscores its sociological repercussions on livelihoods [1]. Inspired by constructivist theory [2] and the conceptual framework of complex human–environment systems (CHANS) [3], this study investigates the intricate pathways of adaptation, delving into the institutional, structural, and societal dimensions that define the human response to a changing environment.

Imbued with a qualitative essence, this research employs purposive sampling and ethnographic methods, such as observation, informal discussions, case studies, in-depth interviews, and group discussions [4]. The diversity of respondents enriches our comprehension of the local dynamics, echoing the sentiments of Patton [5]. A distinct facet of this study lies in its exploration of the symbiotic relationship between humans and the environment in the throes of CC, with a specific lens on communities reliant on forest, agriculture, and livestock.

Central to the narrative is the looming force of global warming, a pivotal factor profoundly impacting the lives of farmers in Ramechhap, thrusting them into a daily struggle. The research reveals increased drought, temperature fluctuations, altered monsoons, and other climate-induced disruptions that cast a shadow over the agricultural system, rendering it vulnerable and less productive [6]. In response to these challenges, the farmers in the region exhibit resilience by employing adaptive measures grounded in traditional wisdom, concurrently integrating new technologies and skills.

This research unfolds a tapestry of nuanced strategies employed by the community, ranging from adjusting crop varieties based on climate disturbances to fostering collective networks and social relations through the exchange of experiences [7]. Beyond providing profound sociological insights into the local dynamics of CC, this study contends that these findings can significantly contribute to the formulation of more holistic CC policies.

The reciprocal relationship between society and the environment is a dynamic interplay that significantly influences each other’s development and sustenance [8]. Individuals’ interactions with their surroundings are shaped by personal experiences and subjective meanings within the local context [9, 10, 11, 12]. Simultaneously, society is intricately intertwined with and reliant upon the natural world, creating a continuous cycle of impact and influence. To comprehensively study society, sociology must acknowledge and explore its interconnectedness with the environment [8].

Environmental sociologists delve into the intricate relationship between humans and their natural surroundings, acknowledging the complexity and multifaceted nature of this connection [13]. Researchers emphasize that the social world is constructed through subjective experiences and the mundane activities of daily life [14, 15].

In contrast, Schaiberg [16] introduces the concept of societal-environmental dialectics, emphasizing that while environmental problems have an ontological status, their recognition as issues stems from social processes. Environmental problems must be understood through social processes, despite any external influences or inherent material bases. In this context, the researchers argue that the relationship between society and the environment in the Ramechhap encompasses a broad spectrum, with a specific focus on society’s interaction with CC.

The study explores societal components and their interactions with the environment, specifically examining the effects of CC on farmers’ livelihoods and their adaptation practices. Various theoretical frameworks serve as a foundation for understanding these themes. The perception, knowledge, experience, and responses to CC vary based on factors such as gender, class, age, status, ethnicity, education, occupation, and other forms of social experience and residence [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. The researchers contend that these individual characteristics play a crucial role in shaping farmers’ knowledge, experiences, and perceptions of CC through socialization processes and cooperative activities.

Most environmental research on CC has traditionally focused on natural and physical aspects, such as temperature, air, water, glaciers, global warming, and other ecological factors [23, 24, 25]. However, sociological research on the environment emerged in the 1970s, with environmental sociology addressing the relationship between humans and their natural surroundings. Since the 1990s, CC research within the sociological perspective has gained momentum [8]. A workshop in 2008 marked a turning point, bringing together environmental sociologists to discuss CC research, emphasizing societal, structural, and cultural driving forces alongside the natural science community’s analysis of CC drivers [26, 27].

As the chapters unfold, the narrative not only paints a nuanced picture of the challenges faced by the communities in Ramechhap but also accentuates the resilience and resourcefulness exhibited by farmers in adapting to the evolving climate. The methodological blueprint of this study stands as a guide for similar sociological investigations in regions grappling with comparable challenges, aiming to foster a broader understanding of the human dimensions of CC. Thus, the objective of this study is to delve into the sociological impacts of CC on farmers in the Ramechhap district, Nepal, particularly those dependent on forests, agriculture, and livestock, providing a comprehensive understanding of daily challenges and vulnerabilities.

1.1 Theoretical/conceptual framework

The foundation of this book chapter rests upon the coupled human and natural systems (CHANS) framework, which delves into the evolving relationship between humans and nature within the dynamic landscape of global sustainability [3, 28]. Considering the interconnectedness of social and natural sciences, the CHANS framework emerges as a preferred method for sociological research [8]. It underscores the intricate relationships between social, economic, political, and natural elements, offering a comprehensive perspective that extends beyond specific environmental agendas including CC.

Originating as a response to the imperative of integrating social sciences into global CC research, the CHANS framework is particularly suited for place-based studies. It examines the interactions between human activities and natural systems, emphasizing emergent behaviors resulting from adaptive actions [8]. Notably, the CHANS approach explicitly recognizes the mutual coupling of human and natural systems through reciprocal interactions involving material, energy, and information flows. The study of feedbacks, surprises, nonlinearities, thresholds, time lags, legacy effects, path dependence, and emergence becomes paramount in understanding these complex interactions [3].

The CHANS is a robust and timely framework for studying the interactions between human and natural systems [29]. This framework offers both theoretical foundations and practical methodologies to delve into the complex relationships between humans and their environments. Drawing from interdisciplinary fields like ecological anthropology and human ecology, CHANS science adopts a holistic viewpoint that encompasses the interconnected patterns and processes across different scales. This approach facilitates the examination of how human actions and natural processes influence each other, which is crucial for navigating the challenges of the Anthropocene era. By integrating various disciplines and acknowledging the mutual dependence of human and natural systems, CHANS science becomes pivotal in devising innovative solutions for the unprecedented global issues we confront (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Schematic diagram of a coupled human and natural system. Arrows show interactions and feedbacks. (Courtesy of Vanessa Hull.)

In the realm of sociology focusing on human dimensions in CC, three main approaches exist: individual level analysis, the CHANS approach, and the post-political approach [8]. Developed as part of the global CC research program initiated by the International Social Science Council (ISSC) in 1996, the CHANS approach investigates embedded CC within social structures, institutions, cultural values, beliefs, and social practices [8]. It recognizes that the interactions between nature and society provide opportunities to observe both societal and environmental changes. Empirical investigations into CC perceptions and adaptation, particularly in the context of traditional rainfed farming in Ramechhap, reveal significant influences on farmers shaped by changes in the natural–physical environment.

The theoretical framework of this study is grounded in the eco-sociological concept, exploring interactions between CC and society, specifically in the context of Ramechhap, Nepal. This study considers fluctuations in rainfall, temperature, atmospheric moisture, and precipitation as events impacting social lives, adopting a multidisciplinary approach that integrates structural functionalism, organic roles, and hierarchical systems within socioculture to understand the consequences of environmental changes on residential areas.

The study focuses on the relationship between society and the environment, addressing how farmers in Ramechhap experience and adapt to climate disorders. Drawing on various sociological theories, including environmental sociology, symbolic interactionism, and constructivism, the researchers acknowledge the limitations of relying on a single theoretical perspective and advocate for a comparative method to better understand societal and environmental interactions in Ramechhap.

Additionally, the study incorporates insights from classical sociologists like Durkheim, Weber, and Marx, highlighting the mutual influence of nature and society. It discusses the application of the CHANS approach to comprehend the intervention of global politics and governmental strategies in managing environmental stresses for sustainable livelihood in undeveloped areas.

The conceptual framework visualizes the ways in which Ramechhap farmers interact with their environment, considering sociocultural, adaptive, natural–physical, and political–economic aspects. This framework demonstrates the interconnectivity of these factors in shaping the collective lives of the community, integrating perspectives from structural functionalism, constructivism, developmental approaches, and CHANS to provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics between society and the environment in Ramechhap.

2. Methodology

This chapter illuminates the study area, the methodological framework employed in unraveling the local realities of CC, and adaptation strategies within the Ramechhap district of Nepal. The research design is characterized by a dual qualitative approach, incorporating both emic and etic perspectives, and draws upon an array of data sources, ethnographic sampling techniques, and analytical methods.

2.1 Study area

Nepal is located in South Asia. It is a landlocked country situated between India to the south, east, and west, and China to the north. The geographical coordinates place Nepal in the southern part of the Asian continent. The Ramechhap district in Nepal was chosen by researchers for specific reasons. First and foremost, the characteristics of the area align well with the research questions and variable relationships. Ramechhap faces high vulnerability to various environmental challenges such as glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF), floods, droughts, and landslides, being situated in the central development region of Nepal [30]. Additionally, as reported by the District Development Committee (DDC) in 2010, 18 Village Development Committees (VDCs) in the southern belt of Ramechhap consistently experience drought issues. Major land use of the district are forest, agriculture, settlement, infrastructures like hydropower, roads, government buildings, baren land, rivers and streams, and snow covered highland (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Map of the study area.

2.2 Data sources

The secondary data for this research emanates from a rich tapestry of published and unpublished articles, journals, books, reports, and documents centered on CC policies, legislation, and directives. A meticulous review of policy documents, CC progress reports, guidelines, CC workshop proceedings, and documents from diverse organizations and individuals adds depth to the dataset.

2.3 Ethnographic sampling

The study employed a purposeful sampling strategy, intricately woven into the cultural fabric of the local populace in the study area. Key informants, carefully chosen within organizations, and individuals selected based on their interactions with villagers, recommendations, and knowledge pertinent to the research questions, form the cornerstone of the ethnographic sampling—snowball sampling technique.

2.4 Data collection techniques

The qualitative approach unfolds through a comprehensive arsenal of data collection techniques, including in-depth interviews, field observation, and focus group discussions. The emic approach probes into how local people perceive and think about the world, while the etic perspective shifts focus to scientific observations and interpretations. A dedicated 7 months and 8 days were spent in the field, entailing participatory observation and immersive field visits.

2.5 Field observations

Field observations serve as a crucial lens through which drought conditions, forest health, water scarcity, and agricultural challenges are unearthed. These on-the-ground insights provide a dynamic understanding of the environmental nuances faced by the community.

2.6 Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informants’ interviews (KIIs)

The researchers engaged in conducting FGDs and KIIs, unraveling local perceptions and practices related to CC. These qualitative interactions delve into the rich tapestry of community experiences, capturing diverse voices and perspectives.

2.7 Data analysis

The qualitative data undergoes a meticulous analysis employing content analysis, case studies, and thematic categorization. Field notes, maintained daily, serve as a reservoir of methodological, descriptive, and analytical insights, capturing the nuances of observations and interactions.

2.8 Triangulation

The methodological rigor is reinforced through triangulation, ensuring the validity and reliability of the data. Cross-checking information through various methods, sources, and perspectives provides a corroboration for the findings.

3. Climate change status of Nepal

Nepal characterized by diverse climates spanning tropical to alpine regions within a mere 200-kilometer range from south to north exhibits climatic variations at every elevation. The national mean temperature, excluding mountain valleys, centers around 15 degrees Celsius. Rainfall patterns increase progressively from west to east, averaging 1500 mm. In the face of rising temperatures and unpredictable precipitation, uncertainties escalate, emphasizing vulnerabilities and the imperative for adaptive measures. The discourse predominantly revolves around two categories of disasters: rapid-onset events like floods and landslides, and slower-onset occurrences such as droughts, forest fires, snowmelt, and regional sedimentation.

A climate trend analysis conducted by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) in 2017 [31] indicates a discernible rise in the annual maximum temperature at a rate of 0.056°C per year. Conversely, the trend in minimum temperature demonstrates a relatively insignificant increase of 0.002°C per year. Notably, certain mountainous regions, like Humla and Manang, experience a decline in minimum temperature, while the central Tarai region -Madhes Province and the Middle Mountainous region demonstrate an increase. The elevated maximum temperature consistently trends higher from east to west in mountainous districts, with the lowest levels observed in the Tarai districts. Furthermore, the mean annual precipitation in Nepal has undergone a reduction of 1.3 mm per year over the monitored interval from 1971 to 2014.

Between 1971 and 2019, Nepal recorded an annual average of 647 fatalities attributed to climate-induced disasters, constituting approximately 65 percent of all disaster-related deaths, excluding road accidents. The highest peak in casualties occurred in 2001. The annual economic loss averaged USD 21 million, equivalent to around 0.08 percent of the FY2018/19 GDP at current prices. The Tarai floods in 2017 resulted in the highest economic loss of USD 678 million, accounting for about 2.08 percent of the FY2017/18 GDP at current prices. Predominantly, Nepal’s most impactful climate-induced disasters include floods, landslides, epidemics, and fires, with epidemics accounting for the highest mortality rate (52.8 percent).

Projections anticipate an increase in losses and damages from climate-induced disasters in the future, contributing to both economic and non-economic loss and damage (L&D). Responses to CC impacts necessitate plural institutions and managed approaches at local, regional, and national scales, addressing both rapid and slower-onset disasters. Changes in monsoon patterns in Nepal are expected to exacerbate poverty and inequality, necessitating effective strategies for economic and social progress in the face of long-term and short-term climate challenges.

Studies by Mehta and Shah [32] underscore the unfair impact of CC on agro-biodiversity, emphasizing the urgency of planning. Paudel and Andersen [33] critique the implementation process of the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA), emphasizing the need for community-based adaptation plans. Khatri et al. [34] discuss the role of local-level community-based organizations (CBOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in supporting CC mitigation. Regmi and Bhandari [35] argue for effective CC policies addressing barriers in technology, knowledge, and institutional frameworks, advocating for changes in development design and planning. Pradhan [36] underscores the importance of recognizing traditional adaptation techniques. Mehata and Shah [37] note the gradual shift toward modern paddy varieties due to changing climatic factors. Molnar [38] discusses the impacts of seasonal rainfall pattern changes on crop production, animal systems, and human populations. Poudel [39] emphasizes the effects of weather fluctuations on agricultural production in Kathmandu Valley, with shifts in the agriculture calendar. Similarly, Batenga et al. [40] highlight the decline in drinking water availability, affecting villagers’ livelihoods. ISET-N [41] emphasizes the importance of a social scientist approach to studying adaptation capacities based on class, gender, and ethnicity.

The Ministry of Forest and Environment of Nepal identified Ramechhap district as the second most vulnerable in its NAPA Report submitted to the UNFCCC in 2010. Vaidya et al. [42] point out challenges faced by communities in the Southern belt of Ramechhap, including variable rainfall, drying water sources, crop failure, and loss of biodiversity. LAPA reports of Himalayan Resources Himalaya (2013) for Manthali, Khaniyapani, Himganga, and Chisapani [43, 44, 45, 46] highlight changing temperatures impacting agricultural production and livelihoods. Upham et al. [47] stress the need to measure and understand environmental tenets and adaptive behaviors, cautioning against relying solely on environmental attitudes without corresponding behavior changes.

The discourse on CC in Nepal presents a multifaceted challenge requiring a comprehensive approach considering socioeconomic, environmental, and cultural factors for effective adaptation strategies. The investigation into the sociological impacts of CC on farmers in the Ramechhap district, Nepal, particularly those dependent on forests, agriculture, and livestock, aims to provide a nuanced understanding of daily challenges and vulnerabilities in this complex context.

4. Findings of the study

4.1 Climate change impact in the study area

4.1.1 Climate change impact to agriculture

Agricultural crops have been directly affected by drought in the Ramechhap district. According to the villagers, Maize crop has been directly affected by drought in the district. They argued that maize had been affected by drought. Therefore, it is very difficult to propagate maize properly.

It is miserable condition of the maize in 2014. Somlal Majhi (male, age 66) said, “Maize could not propagate properly due to the drought.” Besides this, all maize was seen as drying, and very anxious moment was created in the life of the farmers. Similarly, Ratna Newar (male, age 53) said that villagers returned from brick kiln soon for cultivating maize but they were in the dilemma. The one had cultivated maize in two times but all are dried out. It is so distressing that he interrogated himself, “How could life exist?” A father of seven kids said that it was very difficult to sustain life in this year because who earned USD 758 to working in the brick kiln that will also finish soon because there is no any option of livelihood within 6 months. He hoped up to Saas Chhaunjel Aas Vanejhai (hope till last moment of respiration). He was trying to cultivate maize two times. He was hopeless of the maize cultivation for human. There was same situation for livestock. Farmers have got free time due to the drought so that all respondents of FGDs. They said satirically that Sukhkha le Sukha Lyayo (drought brought happiness). They made such a slogan expressing their pain.

Generally, July was supposed to be busy time for all farmers for cultivating and weeding of crops. They were seen free for utilizing their time for lice killing of head or talking to Chautara (a kind of traditional Platform). Inhabitants can neither go for alternatives livelihood sources nor stay in the home so that they have to use free time in the gossiping and back biting others.

During staying in the Chautara inhabitants started backbiting of third person who did not appear at the informal meeting. Among backbiters, someone said that information of third person ultimately created conflict in family and community. One respondent said that whenever people were free from work, they spend time on backbiting and lead to fighting.

Therefore, it creates relationship problem between each other, and conflict has been created in society. Some farmers, whose farmland near Tamakoshi River, cultivate maize after irrigating from water pulling. But they are also not given satisfied maize production as like as rainfall. It is told by Som Rama Karki (woman, age 33) that the people used generators for pulling water from the Tamakoshi River from Manthali and Madhimuhan. The water had been pulled in the winter crops and maize sown, but it was not as good as a rainfall being happened from sky.

For winter maize, at least one to two times rainfall has been considered as good. There was uncertain rainfall in regular routine. Maize cultivation calendar in Khet (irrigated land) and Bari (unirrigated land) seem more fluctuated and fall behind rather than the past routine. Therefore, some farmers have used generator as an alternative source for irrigation. Concerning this issue, Satya Majhi (male, age 46) elaborated with the saying that farmers had waited rainfall for cultivating maize in last 5 years. He added that farmers have been using generator for water pulling otherwise no other option for irrigation (Table 1).

Crop	Type of land	Production of local variety in Kg/Ropani
		Last 10 years	Now	Decrease rate
Paddy	Irrigated land	256	142	55.46%
Wheat	Irrigated land	128	40	31.25%
Maize	Irrigated land	168	50	29.76%
	Rainfed land	210	98	46.66%
	Slope land	154	52	33.76%
Finger Millet	Irrigated land	158	158	0
Horse Gram	Rainfed land	122	42	34.42%
	Slope land	124	38	30.64%
Rice Beans	Rainfed land	158	56	35.44%
	Slope land	162	62	38.27

Table 1.

Agricultural production status in Ramechhap.

Source: FGDs in 2023.

Note: Ropani is a land measuring unit in Nepal consisting of 508.722 square meters/Ropani.

The presented table illustrates the discernible impacts of CC on agricultural production in the Ramechhap area. Notably, the decrease in production over the last decade across various crops and types of land highlights the vulnerability of the region to changing climatic conditions. Paddy, wheat, and maize, cultivated on irrigated land, have experienced significant declines in production, with reduction rates of 55.46 %, 31.25 %, and 29.76%, respectively. Maize, grown on rainfed and slope land, also shows notable decreases of 46.66% and 33.76%, emphasizing the broad-ranging influence of CC on diverse types of agricultural landscapes.

Interestingly, finger millet on irrigated land remains unaffected, showing a consistent production level over the past decade. However, horse gram and rice beans, cultivated on rainfed and slope land, exhibit decrease rates of 34.42% to 38.27%, indicating the pervasive impact of CC on various crops and land types. These findings underscore the urgent need for adaptive strategies and resilient agricultural practices in the face of CC, aiming to safeguard food security and livelihoods in the Ramechhap, Nepal.

This text emphasizes the profound repercussions of CC, particularly drought, in the Ramechhap district of Nepal. The agricultural sector, primarily reliant on maize cultivation, confronted significant challenges as crops withered, leaving farmers distressed and despondent. Even the implementation of drought-resistant hybrid maize proved unsuccessful, exacerbating the agricultural crisis. The societal implications were evident in disrupted routines, with farmers returning from brick kilns to uncertain prospects, and livestock suffering due to the absence of rainfall. The adverse conditions resulted in increased free time for farmers, which, unfortunately, manifested in negative social consequences such as backbiting and conflicts within the community. The dependence on alternative water sources, such as pumping up from the Tamakoshi River, did not yield satisfactory results compared to natural rainfall. Social media posts mirrored the community’s concerns, with cultural practices like frog marriage ceremonies emerging as desperate attempts to invoke rain. The overall decline in agricultural production over the past decade, as indicated by data and case studies, has not only impacted livelihoods but also disrupted the social fabric, compelling families to procure essential crops from the market and challenging their societal standing. This situation underscores the intricate interplay between climate-induced challenges and the nuanced social dynamics of the affected region. It is revealed that production of the cereal crops is decreasing due to the prolonged drought in the study area. However, there are some other factors like less farm yard manuring, untimely cultivation, poor seed quality, damaged by wildlife, pest attack, and diseases are also responsible for the less production to some extent.

In a more personal perspective, Manamaya Tamang, a resident deeply ingrained in the fabric of Ramechhap, provides a poignant viewpoint on the overwhelming impact of CC in the district. From Manamaya’s standpoint, the reliance on maize cultivation, a cornerstone of the agricultural sector, has encountered formidable challenges with the onslaught of drought. The distress and hopelessness etched on the faces of farmers resonate with the gravity of the situation, as even the touted drought-resistant hybrid maize failed to salvage the agricultural crisis, plunging the community into deeper despair.

Manamaya sheds light on the societal aftermath, where disrupted routines force farmers to return from brick kilns to a landscape of uncertainty. Livestock, integral to the community’s livelihood, suffers in the absence of rainfall, painting a grim picture of the challenges faced by the agricultural sector. The surplus free time, a consequence of adverse conditions, unfortunately, manifests in negative social repercussions, with instances of backbiting and conflicts surfacing within the community.

The reliance on alternative water sources, exemplified by the Tamakoshi River, does not provide the expected respite compared to the natural rainfall. Manamaya underscores the palpable concern within the community, evident in social media posts reflecting their collective anxiety. The desperation to seek rain, symbolized by cultural practices like frog marriage ceremonies, highlights the lengths to which the community goes to restore balance in the face of environmental upheaval.

As Harimaya another respondent reflects on the overall decline in agricultural production, the data and case studies presented over the past decade underscore the far-reaching consequences. The necessity for families to purchase essential crops from the market adds an economic strain, challenging the societal prestige they once held. Through Harimaya’s lens, the intricate interplay between climate-induced challenges and the delicate social dynamics of the affected region comes into sharp focus, urging a collective response to safeguard both livelihoods and the cultural tapestry that defines Ramechhap.

4.2 Climate change impact to livestock

The impact of CC on livestock farming in Ramechhap is evident in the diminishing numbers of livestock, particularly cows. Various factors contribute to this decline, influenced by evolving national, international, and global environments, alongside the direct effects of CC. This has resulted in a gradual reduction in livestock farming, a primary source of subsistence in Ramechhap. Economic, social, and cultural considerations are prompting farmers to decrease their livestock holdings.

Kale Majhi, an experienced farmer in Ramechhap, vividly illustrates the impact of CC on livestock farming, expressing deep concern over the decreasing numbers of livestock, especially cows. He attributes this decline to a confluence of factors, including the changing national, international, and global environments intricately linked with the repercussions of CC. Kale emphasizes the interplay of economic, social, and cultural considerations, underscoring how these factors compel farmers to make the challenging decision of reducing their livestock holdings in response to the evolving challenges posed by CC.

The enrolment of children into schools has contributed to a decrease in child labor for livestock rearing and care, further diminishing the number of livestock per household. Traditional practices like transhumance, where livestock was brought to Marinakhola Sindhuli for 6 months, were discontinued after 2010, impacting the management of a significant number of livestock in Ramechhap.

Ram Dhungel, a long-time observer of local dynamics in Ramechhap, provides insightful narratives on the multifaceted factors influencing the decline in livestock numbers. He notes that the entry of children into schools has been transformative, improving education but also reducing available child labor for traditional livestock rearing and care, thereby playing a significant role in the overall decrease in livestock per household. Ram also emphasizes the impact of historical changes on traditional practices, such as transhumance, contributing to the observed decline.

The initiation of the community forestry program in 1992 altered the landscape, resulting in the control of open grazing lands and impacting livestock rearing practices, further contributing to the decline in livestock numbers. Prolonged drought periods have led to a scarcity of fodder and grass in both self-owned and publicly owned lands, exacerbating the gradual decrease in livestock numbers.

The migration of the younger generation to countries like Malaysia, South Korea, and Middle East for labor work, driven by joblessness in Nepal, has resulted in a lack of young people in the area to care for livestock, further contributing to the decline. Additionally, farmers are increasingly shifting to tractors instead of traditional yoke and oxen for plowing due to their efficiency, time-saving nature, and the ability to work in difficult terrain. The preference for tractors is partly driven by increasing drought in the area, resulting in a scarcity of fodder for oxen.

Economically, tractors are considered more cost-effective and efficient compared to oxen, prompting farmers to prefer tractor services. This transition from traditional livestock farming practices to modern technologies reflects broader societal changes influenced by economic, environmental, and technological factors, raising concerns about the potential displacement of traditional practices and the need for adaptation strategies in the face of CC.

Samita Majhi, an astute observer of the changing agricultural landscape in Ramechhap, provides valuable insights into the factors contributing to the decline in livestock numbers. According to Samita, the migration of the younger generation to countries like Malaysia and Qatar for labor work has created a significant void in the community, impacting the care for livestock traditionally handled by young individuals. Furthermore, Samita highlights the shifting preferences of local farmers toward tractors over traditional yoke and oxen for plowing, driven by considerations of efficiency, time-saving benefits, and the ability to navigate difficult terrain. This transition is, in part, a response to the increasing frequency of drought in the region, resulting in a scarcity of fodder for oxen.

Economically, Samita underscores that tractors are perceived as more cost-effective and efficient, leading farmers to willingly invest in tractor services. The adoption of tractors is viewed as a practical and modern approach to agriculture, aligning with the changing economic, environmental, and technological landscape of the area. Samita’s perspective on this transition underscores broader societal changes influenced by various factors, including climate-induced challenges, and raises important considerations about the potential displacement of traditional practices and the necessity for adaptation strategies in the face of CC.

4.3 Climate change impacts to forest and wildlife

The prolonged drought has taken a toll on the forest, causing it to dry out. Pine (Salla) tree leaves, crucial for forest health, require sufficient rainfall to decompose, a condition that has been lacking due to the extended dry period. The forests have experienced degradation, attributed to both human interference and the scarcity of rainfall. Many forest species, including drought-resistant ones, have withered. Pine species, from saplings to mature trees, and various coniferous and broad-leaved species have all been affected by the severe drought, leading to their drying out. The decrease in the number of seedlings growing in the forest is apparent, as pine seeds struggle to germinate and non-flowering trees wither due to the persistent drought.

Impact of CC on the forest is evident in multiple facets. Firstly, the forest has become arid, and secondly, invasive species have proliferated unevenly, leading to irregular flowering and an increase in deforestation due to recurrent droughts. Naina Kumari Majhi, a 76-year-old woman, emphasized the critical issue of pine seed regeneration, expressing concerns that repeated droughts might hinder the future regeneration of pine seeds. Additionally, other broad-leaved species like Chilaune, Phosro, Khayer, Gidari, Kutmiro, and Dhangero have also suffered from drying out in recent years.

Commercial trees have not been spared, impacting industries like Tamakoshi Forest Product Limited (TFPL), which ceased Bel (a drought tolerant species in the district) juice production due to insufficient Bel fruit production caused by less rainfall and smaller fruit growth. The drying out of Bel trees since 2010, coupled with yearly droughts, has significantly reduced its fruit production. Himal Dhungel, a local journalist, pointed out the unintended consequences of the Government of Nepal’s experiment with planting pine species for greenery, resulting in the drying out of local water resources.

Furthermore, the decrease in Simal trees in the locality has been attributed to CC, long-term drought, and a lack of attention to conservation. Dan Bahadur Karki highlighted the decline in the utility of Simal trees, once used for boat construction. He mentioned that Simal wood is not ideal due to its smokiness and lack of durability. The flowering time of Simal, a crucial factor for its ecosystem, has been affected by climatic changes.

Infrastructure development, road construction, and vehicle emissions, particularly CO₂, have been linked to environmental changes. Local communities believe that CO₂ emissions contribute to pushing away clouds, thereby affecting rainfall patterns. The increase in population and inadequate regulations against illegal logging have further accelerated forest degradation. Barren land and decreased land productivity have led to food insecurity, significantly impacting the lives of people.

From an environmental perspective, pollution from vehicle emissions has added to the challenges faced by local communities, affecting respiratory health and contributing to problematic situations in surrounding areas. The interconnectedness of CC, human activities, and environmental impacts underscores the multifaceted challenges faced by both the forest and the community.

The prolonged drought has taken a toll on the forest, causing it to dry out. Pine tree leaves, crucial for forest health, require sufficient rainfall to decompose, a condition that has been lacking due to the extended dry period. The forests have experienced degradation, attributed to both human interference and the scarcity of rainfall. Many forest species, including drought-resistant ones, have withered. Pine species, from saplings to mature trees, and various coniferous and broad-leaved species have all been affected by the severe drought, leading to their drying out. The decrease in the number of seedlings growing in the forest is apparent, as pine seeds struggle to germinate and non-flowering trees wither due to the persistent drought.

4.4 Drought impact to local forest health

Persistent drought has resulted in the desiccation of forests, hindering the decomposition of pine tree leaves—a process traditionally dependent on ample rainfall. This has led to adverse effects, with both young and mature pine trees fading due to consecutive droughts, and coniferous and broad-leaved species experiencing a decline in overall forest health. Scientific literature extensively addresses the ecological impacts of prolonged dry periods, emphasizing how climatic stressors impede crucial decomposition processes [48].

Human activities have further aggravated forest degradation, heightening the vulnerability of various species, including those adapted to withstand drought conditions. Walker et al. [49] highlights the cascading effects of drought on forest composition, indicating that anthropogenic factors contribute to the withering of drought-resistant species. Deforestation, resource overexploitation, and other human-induced stressors collectively compromise forest resilience, rendering them more susceptible to climate-driven impacts.

Naina Kumari Majhi’s witnessed observation regarding the failure of pine seeds to germinate underscores a critical concern for future forest health. Her insights highlight compromised regeneration potential, posing significant long-term sustainability implications for the forest ecosystem. Additionally, the drying trend extends beyond coniferous species to various broadleaved species, aligning with recent studies emphasizing the vulnerability of diverse tree species to CC conditions [50].

The observed fading of pine trees and the broader decline in coniferous and broad-leaved species signify the severity of consecutive droughts. Peterson et al. [51] explain how extended water scarcity induces physiological stress in tree species, resulting in diminished forest health. This underscores the urgency for comprehensive conservation measures and sustainable management practices in the face of climate-induced challenges.

The decline in forest regeneration, particularly the reduction in seedling abundance, is a critical concern with far-reaching consequences. Historical records highlight the forest’s erstwhile richness in seedlings, serving as an essential component of biodiversity. Recent trends reveal a disconcerting decrease, attributed to challenges faced by pine seeds in germination and the withering of non-flowering trees due to prolonged drought conditions.

Empirical evidence supports the assertion that CC has ushered in a dual impact on the forest ecosystem. The drying out of the forest, documented in studies such as Smith et al. [52], underscores adverse effects from reduced precipitation and increased evaporation, contributing to vegetation desiccation and ecological imbalances. Afforestation initiatives, while well-intentioned, add complexity to ecological challenges, inadvertently contributing to the drying of local water resources [53].

4.5 Change of flowering season of forest species

The flowering seasons of forest species have undergone a notable shift, occurring 1 to 2 months earlier than their historical patterns. This change strongly suggests an increase in temperatures over time. The explicit illustration of this phenomenon is presented in the following table, showcasing the altered flowering times of various species compared to their general routine. The observed shifts in flowering seasons serve as tangible indicators of the warming climate and its impact on the phenology of forest ecosystems. In addition to the fruits highlighted in Table 2, there have been noticeable shifts in the flowering, leaf-shedding, and fruiting times of various other tree species. For instance, the traditional flowering period of Koiralo, which previously spanned from February to April, has advanced to the 3rd week of January. Chilaune, known for flowering in April–May, now blooms in March–April. The leaf-shedding patterns have also experienced a shift, occurring earlier in February–March, compared to the previous timeframe of April–May.

Name	Before 1990 A.D.		2023 A.D.
	Flowering time	Ripening time	Flowering time	Ripening time
Mango	1st week of February	June, July August	Middle of December and January	April, May, June, July
Pineapple	1st week of February	June–July, August–September	December	May, June, July, August
Custard Apple	Middle of April	July–August, September–October	May, June, July	August, September
Pomegranate	1^stweek of February	September–October, November–December	December	July, August, September
Lemon, Citrus fruits	In between January and February	November–December, January–February	December	August, September, October

Table 2.

Flowering time and ripening time of various tree species.

Source: Focused Group Discussion in 2023.

Furthermore, the flowering season of Simal, once limited to March–May, now initiates in January–February. Simal and Kaiyo have unexpectedly commenced flowering in this season ahead of their usual schedule. CC has played a discernible role in altering the flowering seasons of these plants. Leaf shedding, traditionally occurring in April–May, now starts as early as February and March. The Simal tree, originally flowering in March/April/May, has shifted its flowering season to commence in January. These changes underscore the impact of CC on the phenology of various tree species, influencing not only flowering times but also the shedding of leaves.

4.6 Invasive species are major problems of forest ecosystem

Proliferation of invasive species, irregular flowering patterns, and heightened deforestation are consequential outcomes of recurring drought events. Leishman et al. [54] conducted studies delving into the intricate relationship between climate change, modified precipitation patterns, and the subsequent proliferation of invasive species. Flourishing in arid conditions induced by drought, these invasive plants disrupt the natural balance of ecosystems, contributing to observed uneven flowering and increased deforestation.

The invasion of new plant species, such as Seto Banmara, has adversely affected crops and forest cover, with Ram Tamang (76) noting the aggressive spread of these invasive species over the past decade. While Seto Banmara aids in water filtration, it has displaced the abundant Sitho grass species, rendering the forest more susceptible to fires. Nara Shrestha (48) highlighted the transformation of once lush forests into barren land due to reduced rainfall, impacting even drought-resistant species like Bel and Khayar.

The emergence of alien invasive species, including Twakejhar grass, has been observed in the study area, covering agricultural land after unseasonal rainfall. This grass, harmful to both humans and cattle, exacerbates the challenges faced by the community. The decline in dried forest products, once a source of income for the poor, has led to barren forests that were once abundant with grass for animal pasture.

The invasion of new plant species, as exemplified by Seto Banmara, has significantly impacted both crops and forest ecosystems. Fatman Tamang’s observation of the aggressive spread of these invasive species over the past decade is substantiated by recent studies on invasive plant species dynamics [55]. However, Seto Banmara contributes increase in water filtration, as noted by Tamang, aligns with findings on the ecological functions of invasive species in altering ecosystem processes [56].

4.7 Closure of Tamakoshi forest products limited

The detrimental effects of CC extend beyond ecological realms, significantly impacting local forest-based enterprises and communities reliant on forest resources. Commercial trees, essential for sustaining enterprises like TFPL, fall victim to changing climate patterns, particularly recurrent droughts in the region.

Bahadur Khadka (66 years old) sheds light on the economic repercussions, emphasizing the decline in Bel fruit production due to low rainfall. This has compelled TFPL to halt Bel juice production, affecting the local economy and employment. These findings align with studies by Sharma et al. [57], underlining the vulnerability of commercial crops to shifting precipitation patterns and extreme weather events.

Observations of diminishing rainfall and smaller Bel fruits since 2010 underscore the persistent climate-induced challenges faced by the region. Studies, including those by the IPCC [6], discuss the intensification of drought conditions as a consequence of global CC, validating experiences shared by Bahadur Khadka.

A local school principal proposed alternatives for forest rehabilitation, suggesting planting trees like Chilaune and Dhangero. With no significant rainfall in the last 4 years, there are concerns that Bel could be lost within 5 years. The principal recommended planting Ashok and Rudraksha for environmental protection. Dan Karki highlighted the gradual decline of Simal trees due to climatic changes and prolonged drought, further aggravated by neglect in conservation efforts.

The local school principal’s proposal for forest rehabilitation, endorsing the planting of trees such as Chilaune and Dhangero, aligns with ecological experts’ recommendations. Studies by Sharma et al. [58] support afforestation with indigenous species, proving effective in restoring degraded ecosystems and enhancing biodiversity.

The alarming decrease in Bel population over the last 4 years, attributed to prolonged drought, aligns with findings by Jackson et al. [59]. Their research emphasizes the vulnerability of specific tree species, like Bel, to changing climatic conditions, emphasizing the urgency of targeted conservation and rehabilitation initiatives.

Dan Karki’s observations regarding the gradual decline of Simal trees due to CC and prolonged drought align with broader research on the vulnerability of various tree species to shifting climate patterns [60]. Additionally, Lackner et al. [61] highlight the importance of conservation efforts in preventing further losses in tree diversity and ecosystem health.

These recommendations underscore the need for a comprehensive and context-specific approach to forest rehabilitation, combining local knowledge with scientific insights to address the unique challenges posed by CC and human activities.

The impact of persistent drought on the forest ecosystem and local communities is a matter of critical concern, warranting comprehensive analysis and proposed interventions. The ongoing desiccation of forests, exemplified by the decomposition challenges of pine tree leaves, underscores the urgent need for adaptive strategies. As highlighted by Pile et al. [62], prolonged dry spells pose a significant threat to forest health, disrupting ecological processes and leading to the decline of various tree species.

Human activities exacerbate the degradation of forests, further intensifying the challenges posed by CC. The findings of the IPCC [63] emphasize the interconnectedness of human-induced factors and environmental degradation, illustrating the need for sustainable practices and conservation efforts.

Moreover, the invasion of new species, uneven flowering, and increased deforestation are identified consequences of CC in the region. These challenges resonate with the research by Demertzis and Iliadis [64], who discuss the cascading effects of CC on forest ecosystems, including altered species composition and increased vulnerability to invasive species.

Addressing these multifaceted issues requires a holistic approach. Proposed interventions should consider community engagement, sustainable forest management practices, and region-specific climate adaptation strategies. The work of Mwangi et al. [65] highlights the importance of community involvement and adaptive governance structures in fostering resilience to climate-induced ecological changes.

The proposed interventions should draw upon a robust understanding of the ecological intricacies and the interconnectedness of CC impacts on forests and local communities. Traditional practices like crossing rivers on boats made from the light wood of Simal have been affected. It, while not ideal for wood and firewood, played a crucial role in local river crossings. Infrastructure development, including road construction and vehicle emissions contributing to CO₂ levels, is believed by the community to influence rainfall patterns. The population increase and lax rules on illegal logging have intensified forest degradation, resulting in barren land and reduced land productivity, leading to food insecurity.

Nara Bahadur Shrestha’s depiction of once lush forests turning into bare land due to reduced rainfall finds support in studies documenting the effects of CC on forest ecosystems [66]. The vulnerability of drought-resistant species like Bel and Khayar to changing climatic conditions underscores the broader implications of CC on forest biodiversity and ecosystem stability [67, 68].

The appearance of alien invasive species like Twakejhar grass after unseasonal rainfall, as mentioned by Shrestha [69], corresponds with documented instances of invasive species proliferation following extreme weather events [70]. The harmful effects of Twakejhar grass on both humans and cattle highlight the urgent need for effective management strategies to mitigate the impacts of invasive species on local communities [71].

The decline in dried forest products, once a vital source of income for the poor, mirrors broader trends in forest degradation and loss of ecosystem services [72]. The shift in forest management from Government to CFUGs, as described by Shrestha [69], reflects broader shifts in governance structures and their implications for local livelihoods [73].

The observed changes in flowering seasons, ripening times, and the transformation of leaves into thorny species are consistent with documented impacts of CC on phenological patterns and plant adaptations [74]. Mr. Kul Karki’s observation of leaves transforming into thorns as a survival adaptation to prolonged drought highlights the complex interplay between CC and vegetation dynamics [75].

The shift in flowering seasons, ripening times, and even the transformation of leaves into thorny species are attributed to CC impacts. The altered timings of mango, pineapple, custard apple, pomegranate, and citrus fruits indicate a shift in climate patterns. Mr. Kul Bahadur Karki observed the transformation of leaves into thorns in response to the prolonged drought, a survival adaptation in vegetation.

The social organization has suffered as CFUGs’ members are reluctant to attend meetings, attributing the lack of interest to the perceived futility of discussing barren forests. The rich are more inclined toward forest protection, while the poor prioritize fulfilling their livelihood needs, potentially leading to conflicts between these groups. This social disruption has contributed to increased timber demand, resulting in haphazard tree cutting, deforestation, and diminished forest and plant vitality due to recurrent droughts.

The theory aligning the rise in atmospheric temperature with drought onset and food grain scarcity contributing to class conflict, criminal activity in deforestation, and structural, functional, conflict interactional, economic sociological, and criminological aspects is evident. The negative changes in social living patterns are a consequence of the disastrous impacts from the intersection of CC and social–ecological patterns in geography.

4.8 Wildlife trouble to village people

Local residents report a noticeable surge in wildlife intrusion into their village, attributing this phenomenon to the effects of CC. Consequently, agricultural crops cultivated by the local population have suffered extensive damage, with animals such as monkeys, porcupines, and deer identified as the culprits. This escalating wildlife presence has led to the destruction of vital crops, negatively impacting the livelihoods of the villagers. The lack of wild foods and fruits in the region exacerbates the situation, intensifying the strain on the community’s sustenance.

Numerous studies support the assertion that CC can drive shifts in wildlife behavior and distribution. For instance, the IPCC, in its report on climate impacts, highlights the potential disruptions to ecosystems and species distribution due to changing climate patterns [76]. Additionally, research by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) underscores the connection between CC and alterations in wildlife behavior, with potential consequences for human communities [77].

This compelling evidence substantiates the claim that CC-induced alterations in wildlife patterns are adversely affecting the agricultural landscape in the village, thereby jeopardizing the local residents’ livelihoods.

Researchers’ observations indicate a pronounced escalation in drought conditions in the southern part of Ramechhap. This intensifying aridity poses significant challenges for effective forest management in the region. Plantation efforts are particularly hindered as the scarcity of water makes it impractical to irrigate and sustain newly planted vegetation, leading to the widespread destruction of these efforts.

This observation aligns with broader concerns about changing precipitation patterns and increased drought frequency associated with CC. Studies such as the National Climate Assessment in the United States highlight the growing risk of droughts in various regions due to climate-related factors [78]. Additionally, the IPCC reports on the global impacts of CC, emphasizing the vulnerability of ecosystems, including forests, to altered water availability [67, 68].

The empirical evidence from these reputable sources reinforces the researchers’ on-the-ground observations, emphasizing the pressing issue of escalating drought conditions in the southern part of Ramechhap and its adverse effects on forest management and plantation initiatives.

Poudel, a local resident in the southern part of Ramechhap, echoes the sentiments of the community concerning the noticeable increase in wildlife intrusion attributed to CC effects. As a witness to the consequential damage to agricultural crops caused by animals like monkeys, porcupines, and bears, Poudel emphasizes the dire impact on the villagers’ livelihoods. The absence of wild foods and fruits further compounds the challenges faced by the community, accentuating the strain on sustenance.

Moreover, Poudel shares the concern about escalating drought conditions in the region, particularly in the southern part of Ramechhap. The intensifying aridity poses formidable challenges for effective forest management, hindering plantation efforts due to water scarcity. As someone directly affected by these conditions, Poudel emphasizes the practical difficulties in irrigating and sustaining newly planted vegetation, leading to widespread destruction.

Susil Poudel’s perspective aligns with broader scientific assessments, drawing attention to changing precipitation patterns and increased drought frequency associated with CC. The National Climate Assessment in the United States and reports from the IPCC serve as crucial references supporting the local observations. Poudel’s voice adds a personal dimension to the empirical evidence, highlighting the urgency of addressing the pressing issue of escalating drought conditions and their detrimental effects on both wildlife and forest management initiatives in the southern part of Ramechhap.

4.9 Disturbance to community forestry user group (CFUG)

Members of the CFUGs have exhibited reluctance to attend meetings, and locals have been unwilling to participate in discussions, citing a perceived lack of necessity for dialog concerning the barren and dried state of the forest. Quorum requirements for meetings have frequently gone unfulfilled, as exemplified by a meeting called by a local leader a year ago that saw minimal attendance. Expressing concerns about the desiccated condition of the forest, Kumar Majhi (57 years old) highlighted the rise in forest product theft, contributing to a diminished interest among the community. It is also revealed that forest fire in the forest area including community forest area has been increased in recent years due to the invasive species growth and high deposit of inflammable materials such as dry leaflitter, dried twigs and tops, and increased temperature in the area. Moreover, 13 arm forces were killed in 2013 in Ramechhap while they were involved in forest fire extinguishing in a community forest area. Additionally, the planted species were died in the forest due to increased drought and temperature in Ramechhap.

Notably, there appears to be a divide in perspectives, with affluent individuals showing greater interest in forest protection, while economically disadvantaged individuals prioritize meeting their livelihood needs. This dichotomy could potentially escalate into conflicts between the affluent and impoverished classes. Consequently, the increased demand for timber has led to rampant and unsustainable tree cutting, exacerbating the issue of deforestation. The adverse impacts on the forest and vegetation are further compounded by recurring and prolonged droughts in recent years.

As a consequence of severe drought impacts, the CFUG committee has faced challenges in fulfilling its responsibilities in forest management. Hari Poudel, serving as the Chairperson of Ramite CFUG, contends that the once-significant role of community forest (CF) has diminished. This decline is primarily attributed to a pervasive lack of concern among the general populace for these arid woodland areas. Similarly, Min Shrestha from the CFUG of Sallaghari observes a growing trend of young people migrating abroad in search of better opportunities. This migration has resulted in decreased interest among the youth to actively participate in the CFUG committee.

Hari Poudel expresses concern over the severe impacts of drought on the CFUG committee, emphasizing their inability to fulfill their responsibilities in forest management. As the Chairperson of Ramite CFUG, Poudel argues that the once-significant role of CF has diminished, largely attributed to a pervasive lack of concern among the general populace for these arid woodland areas. In a similar vein, Min Shrestha, representing the CFUG of Sallaghari, highlights a troubling trend of young people migrating abroad in pursuit of better opportunities. This migration phenomenon has led to a decline in the youth’s interest and active participation in the CFUG committee. Shrestha expresses deep concerns regarding the future sustainability of the CFUG, foreseeing a potential crisis post the older generation’s passing. The reluctance of the younger population to engage is fueled by their frustration with the profound impacts of CC, posing a significant threat to the continuity of CF management efforts.

In analyzing this scenario, theoretical frameworks such as structural–functional, conflict interactional, economic sociological, and criminological perspectives can be applied. The rise in atmospheric temperature, coupled with prolonged droughts and food scarcity, can be viewed as contributing factors to class conflict, criminal activities linked to deforestation for financial gain, and negative changes in social living patterns. These dynamics reflect the interconnectedness of social and ecological patterns within the geographic context, showcasing the multifaceted impacts on the community.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, this study has ventured beyond conventional biophysical perspectives to illuminate the sociological dimensions of CC, particularly in the context of the Ramechhap district in Nepal. Employing a sociological lens and drawing inspiration from constructivist theory and the complex human–environment systems (CHANS) framework, our research navigated through institutional, structural, and societal pathways of adaptation.

The qualitative nature of the study, characterized by purposive sampling and ethnographic methods—snowball-sampling technique, allowed for a nuanced exploration of local perceptions and experiences. Diverse respondents representing communities reliant on forests, agriculture, and livestock contributed to a holistic understanding of the intricate dynamics shaping their responses to CC.

Global warming emerged as a formidable force, imposing daily challenges on farmers in Ramechhap. The increased prevalence of drought, temperature fluctuations, and altered monsoons disrupted the agricultural system, leaving it vulnerable and less productive. In the face of these challenges, farmers exhibited resilience and resourcefulness by implementing adaptive measures rooted in traditional and local knowledge, coupled with the integration of new technologies and skills.

The study highlighted nuanced strategies employed by the community, such as adjusting crop varieties based on climate disturbances and fostering collective networks through the exchange of experiences. These sociological insights offer valuable contributions to the formulation of more comprehensive CC policies, recognizing the importance of local knowledge and adaptive capacities.

As the research unfolded, it not only presented a detailed understanding of the challenges faced by communities in Ramechhap but also underscored the adaptive capacities and resourcefulness demonstrated by farmers in response to the evolving climate. The methodological approach employed in this study, guided by a sociological lens, serves as a potential model for similar investigations in regions grappling with comparable challenges, aiming to broaden our understanding of the human dimensions of CC.

In essence, the objective of this study was met by providing a comprehensive exploration of the sociological impacts of CC on forest user groups and forest management in the Ramechhap district. The findings emphasize the interconnectedness of environmental and societal factors, urging a holistic and community-centric approach to CC mitigation and adaptation efforts.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the use of ChatGPT for language polishing of the manuscript.