Sustainable Social Reconciliation Process and Approaches in Divided Societies: The Case of the Ali-Saaid Conflict

Abstract

The Ali-Saaid district in Somaliland faces ongoing conflict between local communities, further intensifying the humanitarian crisis caused by severe drought. This ongoing violence has severely affected vulnerable groups, particularly women, children, and families, leading to the closure of community learning centers and overwhelming limited government and police resources. The conflict drains resources and undermines stability, emphasizing the importance of resource allocation in peacebuilding. This chapter discusses the imbalance between resources devoted to conflict and those designated for peacebuilding, advocating for a more deliberate and sustained approach to transform peace ideals into reality. However, it warns against unstructured resource distribution, such as using livestock for blood compensation, which might inadvertently escalate conflicts. To foster peace in Somaliland, the chapter suggests categorizing resources into community-based (e.g., livestock, monetary contributions) and state-based (e.g., infrastructure, services). It also highlights key peace-promoting elements, like reducing harm to vulnerable groups, prompt settlement of Diya claims, and the crucial role of clan elders in maintaining peace. Additionally, it underscores “flashpoints” where conflicts are likely to erupt, such as clan tensions, generational divides, unmanaged urbanization, and friction between internally displaced persons and host communities, calling for comprehensive strategies to ensure long-lasting peace.

1. Introduction

In the contemporary global landscape, violent conflicts are pervasive, with mainstream media reporting over 700,000 fatalities annually due to violence and armed conflicts worldwide [1]. Moreover, civil wars can significantly hamper a country’s economy, causing a decline of 2.2% per year [2]. Since 2008, the world has witnessed a decrease in peace levels, marked by heightened terrorist activities, violent demonstrations, organized conflicts, and perceptions of criminality [3]. To address these issues, various peace-building strategies have been developed, contingent upon factors such as conflict type, history, stakeholders involved, root causes, and stakeholder perceptions.

In Africa, pastoral conflicts often stem from resource competition exacerbated by factors like marginalization, environmental challenges, climate-induced droughts, proliferation of arms, imperialism, religious and ethnic differences, poor governance, and corruption. In eastern Somaliland, escalating violence among clans and political factions, prolonged drought, and economic crises have led to a humanitarian emergency, with hundreds killed and thousands displaced. This violence, rooted in clan competition over natural resources, is exacerbated by the influence of Islamist militant groups, hindering traditional conflict resolution efforts.

Addressing past human rights violations is crucial for long-term stability and reconciliation. However, responses to political conflicts in eastern Somaliland have often overlooked micro-level realities, leaving reconciliation efforts inadequate and the region politically and socially unstable. Non-state actors like clan elders, religious leaders, and civil society organizations have stepped in to fill governance gaps, but their effectiveness is limited by low capacity, weak legitimacy, and narrow clan bases. Supporting these actors to gain skills and expand their reach is essential for addressing poverty and instability in the region. While non-state actors play a vital role, government support is crucial for sustaining peace efforts and achieving national reconciliation. However, Somaliland’s government lacks essential governance skills, leading to tensions with traditional leaders and hindering conflict resolution. Transferring governance skills to local authorities and empowering moderate religious voices are vital for addressing root causes of conflict and countering extremist narratives.

The chapter emphasizes the importance of peace-building strategies tailored to specific contexts and supported by empirical evidence. Despite numerous peace-building initiatives, violent conflicts persist in Ali-Saaid, fueled by disputes over resources and district administrative control. Only a minority of residents show increased positivity toward peace, indicating the limited impact of current strategies. Emphasizing a holistic approach, the chapter advocates for interventions in governance, security, reconciliation, socioeconomics, and justice tailored to local conflict analyses.

To enhance peace-building effectiveness, the chapter proposes exploring the influence of strategies like peace dividends, community agreements, and capacity development of peace-building structures on social reconciliation. Understanding the effectiveness of these strategies is essential for peace-building organizations and donor communities to allocate resources strategically. Additionally, it informs Somaliland’s government and the Ministry of Interior about effective peacebuilding and conflict management strategies. Despite challenges like insecurity and high costs, the chapter contributes to the literature on peace-building strategies in Somaliland’s eastern regions. By leveraging field visits and personal resources, the research overcame data collection obstacles. The chapter aims to inform evidence-based, context-specific peace-building interventions to mitigate conflict and promote reconciliation in Somaliland.

This chapter employs a qualitative approach intertwined with phenomenology to delve into and comprehend the intricate lived experiences of individuals, offering a nuanced and comprehensive analysis of the subject matter. By embracing phenomenology, this methodology seeks to grasp the essence of the phenomenon under scrutiny, thereby facilitating a robust and multifaceted exploration of the topic.

In this qualitative study, contextual analysis serves as the backbone to investigate the prevailing state of peace in Somaliland, with a specific focus on its eastern regions. Through a meticulous review process encompassing policy analysis and institutional scrutiny, the research evaluates the effectiveness of peace-building endeavors by examining stability-related policies and normative frameworks. Drawing upon historical data sourced from publications like the National Gazette and archives from the Ministry of Justice, both pre- and post-colonial independence records are scrutinized to provide a contextual backdrop to the landscape of peace-building efforts. Furthermore, insights from scholarly literature and publications available at the Somaliland Parliament Library enrich the understanding of Somaliland’s historical trajectory in peace-building endeavors. Additionally, content analysis methodology is employed to explore a diverse array of sources, including written documents, interviews, speeches, visual media, and social media posts, further enhancing the depth and breadth of the investigation.

2. Ali-Saaid reconciliation efforts

Somaliland stands out within the Somali-inhabited eastern Horn of Africa due to its robust resilience and response capabilities against armed violence, positioning it at an advanced stage of “consolidated” or “durable” peace compared to neighboring regions. Unlike less effective governance structures observed elsewhere in Somalia, Somaliland’s unique hybrid model combining tri-party democracy and traditional clan-based governance has cultivated an environment conducive to consolidating governmental authority, ensuring political stability, facilitating social and economic recovery, and upholding relative peace and security.

At the heart of this success lies Somaliland’s distinctive political culture, which revolves around clan elders who command respect and legitimacy within their communities, thereby fostering political stability—a key divergence from the situation in southern Somalia.

These factors have significantly contributed to Somaliland’s remarkable achievements in maintaining peace, security, and democracy in a volatile region. However, sustaining this consensus has come at a considerable cost, with over 40% of the national budget allocated to security services while the provision of social services remains heavily reliant on foreign aid [4]. Yet, the threat of armed conflict and political violence still exists in Somaliland, especially in the disputed eastern regions, Togdheer and Sanaag [5]. Although state-building efforts in Somaliland have shown relative success, particularly in southern Somalia, there are various factors contributing to fragility and potential conflicts in the future. The political elite has become increasingly disconnected from and less inclined to engage with local communities [6]. The autonomy and credibility of the Guurti (House of Elders, the upper house of the Parliament of Somaliland) have diminished over time. Peace institutions lack the capacity to effectively address human rights violations, and there is frequent executive interference in the affairs of the elders.

Somaliland’s remote eastern regions have historically lacked the same enduring peace seen in other parts of the region, making them potential hotspots for armed conflict [5]. Over the past 5 years, tensions between the HabarYonis and Issa-Muse, two Isaaq sub-clans, have escalated in these areas. Compounding the issue, the relationship between the central government in Hargeisa and local traditional elders, crucial for resolving clan conflicts, has weakened.

Ali-Saaid’s conflict revolved around a land dispute between two neighboring clans in the vicinity of the Togdheer region. The root of the conflict stemmed from one clan’s disagreement with the administration’s jurisdiction over a small district, prompting them to establish a new settlement nearby. However, this action was deemed unacceptable by the other clan, which received governmental support in line with existing policies. The escalation of tensions was fueled by social media campaigns and hate speech from both sides, as well as interviews with violent members of each clan.

Despite two previous initiatives failing to yield results, a new agreement was eventually brokered after initial casualties were reported. However, concerns were raised within the local community regarding the legitimacy of external interventions, which often occurred without consulting the affected communities, leading to feelings of imposition.

Drawing from the lessons of past conflicts like El-Afwayn, where the failure to implement agreements led to recurring violence, it was understood that the non-payment of blood compensation, or Diya, as mandated by Sharia law, could trigger revenge acts. This compensation, integral to the Somali justice system, is meant to foster forgiveness and prevent vendettas between families. However, the shortage of livestock, exacerbated by economic hardships, often made timely payments challenging for communities.

To address these challenges, a peace committee comprising business leaders, elders, and government officials was established by the two clans. This committee recognized three key politicized elements: firstly, the impact of climate-induced droughts on livestock availability, making it difficult to fulfill Diya obligations; secondly, the adoption of cash equivalents for blood compensation; and thirdly, the development of timelines for Diya payments. Through collaborative efforts, all Diya payments were completed within 2 months, amounting to a total exceeding one million USD. However, it was acknowledged that this significant resource allocation could have been better utilized had the conflict been managed earlier through timely interventions and de-escalation strategies.

Moving forward, both clans have reached a mutual agreement that any future incidents will be regarded as individual responsibilities rather than the collective responsibility of the entire clan. Additionally, they have agreed to abstain from seeking revenge. Any incidents that occur will be promptly reported to government authorities, and the clans have pledged their support to the government in addressing and resolving such issues.

3. Community social reconciliation

Social reconciliation is the process of repairing relationships between two groups that were previously in violent conflict. According to Kumar [7], it involves acknowledging the wrongs committed by both parties, openly discussing the disputes, and validating painful experiences. Lederach [8] describes reconciliation as the convergence of four elements: mercy, truth, justice, and peace. He emphasizes the importance of acknowledging past wrongs, showing forgiveness, achieving justice through restitution, and envisioning a shared future for divided communities.

As indicated above section, the Ali-Saaid clan conflict in Somaliland had been a source of tension and violence for many years, leading to numerous casualties and displacements within the region. The conflict stemmed from various factors, including historical grievances, competition over resources, and political disagreements. Amidst this turmoil, the efforts of the peace committee played a crucial role in facilitating reconciliation between the warring factions. Recognizing the urgent need for peace, the committee embarked on a comprehensive reconciliation process aimed at addressing the root causes of the conflict and fostering sustainable peace in the region.

Central to the success of the peace agreement was the peace committee’s emphasis on certain key principles. Firstly, the committee prioritized the need for the agreement to reflect a sense of justice, restitution, and reparation for past wrongs committed by both sides. This acknowledgement of historical grievances was essential in building trust and laying the groundwork for reconciliation. The aim here is to restore relationships between divided communities through forgiveness, healing, restitution, and a shared vision for the future, ultimately leading to unity and cooperation [7].

Additionally, the committee focused on fostering brotherly relations between the clans involved, emphasizing the importance of mutual respect, understanding, and cooperation. By promoting a sense of solidarity and unity among the clans, the committee sought to bridge long-standing divides and promote reconciliation. Moreover, the peace agreement underscored the significance of a shared vision for the future, emphasizing the importance of collective goals and aspirations in building a peaceful and prosperous society. Through these efforts, the peace committee played a pivotal role in bringing about reconciliation and paving the way for a brighter future for the Ali-Saaid clan and the broader Somaliland community.

4. The influence of peace dividends on community social reconciliation

The peace dividend concept emerged after the Cold War, suggesting that resources previously allocated for military expenditure could be redirected toward productive activities. This concept encompasses three main benefits: savings from reduced military expenses, opportunities for practical actions through military redeployment, and gains from preventing destruction caused by conflicts [9]. Peace practitioners and researchers have adopted this concept as a strategy in peacebuilding and conflict management, viewing it as the potential benefits that communities would experience if violent conflicts ceased or were effectively managed.

Two prominent peace-building models, the peace-building palette model by Dan Smith and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) peace-building models, prioritize socio-economic interventions. These interventions aim to achieve balanced physical reconstruction, equitable access to social services and natural resources, and sound economic management [10]. By addressing the underlying root causes of violence, such as social injustices and resource distribution inequalities, these interventions can contribute to sustainable peace.

In Ali-Saaid, a range of government and community-led peace-building strategies have been initiated with a focus on establishing tangible public basic services that directly support peace agreement efforts. These efforts, often referred to as peace dividends, encompass a variety of initiatives aimed at addressing underlying social tensions and fostering harmony.

These peace dividends include enhancing essential social services to alleviate competition and conflicts over resources, promoting collaborative projects that facilitate interaction between historically divided communities, and tackling the root causes of disputes. The overarching objective is to prioritize, co-manage, and share such infrastructure among these communities to cultivate improved relationships, shift perceptions, and foster positive attitudes toward one another. The ultimate aim is to demonstrate that communities can successfully share resources and benefits without the need for establishing new settlements or engaging in competitive behaviors.

5. The influence of community peace agreements on community social reconciliation

Yawanarajah and Ouellet [11] define a peace agreement as a contract aimed at ending violent conflicts or transforming them constructively. These agreements can vary, including ceasefire, pre-negotiation, interim, or comprehensive peace agreements, depending on the negotiation stage or conflict scene. For success, peace agreements need procedural, substantive, and institutional components. In protracted conflicts, injustices and harm create a need for reparations and justice to heal divided communities and foster reconciliation. Restorative justice, emphasizing harm repair through dialog and negotiation rather than punishment, is preferred [12].

To successfully implement comprehensive peace agreements (CPAs), Lederach [8] suggests focusing on leadership within divided communities. Representative leaders must articulate and advocate for their constituents, possessing the power to garner community support for the agreement. In the Ali-Saaid district, clan elders typically hold leadership roles. In the context of the Somaliland government’s Ministry of Interior, Clan Peace Agreements (CPAs) are made between conflicting parties following violent conflicts to establish a ceasefire, provide restorative justice, and plan for peaceful conflict resolution without resorting to violence. CPAs are reached through peace dialogs mediated by representatives or leaders of the conflicting parties.

Once agreed upon, CPAs are disseminated to grassroots communities by inclusive teams representing the conflicting parties. Grassroots dialogs aim to ensure community understanding and alignment with traditional conflict resolution mechanisms such as Xeer¹ and conflicts like the one that occurred in Odwayne in 2020. Any objections are addressed through further deliberation, and agreed-upon issues are documented and signed by leaders in a public forum attended by the divided societies.

6. Drivers of conflict and fragility in Ali-Saaid

The environment for implementers working in Somaliland is complex and evolving. The security situation in Somaliland depends, to a large extent, on continued internal economic and political stability. According to those interviewed, continued financial stability and prosperity are essential to maintaining peace and security in Somaliland. Somaliland’s continued political stability also shapes the security situation—political stability has kept extremist groups from gaining a foothold in Somaliland—and has enabled the government to create an enabling environment for peace, making Somaliland one of the most peaceful political entities in the Horn of Africa.

7. Clannism

Somaliland has established successful governance structures, a feat achieved from the bottom up. This accomplishment, however, is juxtaposed against long-standing clan grievances, possibly spanning decades or even centuries [13]. This presents a unique and challenging environment for any development partner. Presently, clan grievances fuel community polarization, with carefully negotiated agreements among clan elders facing increasing challenges from the younger, more urbanized population.

This polarization is exacerbated by environmental concerns and a lack of employment opportunities, which drive competition over limited resources. Additionally, clan affiliation is a primary trigger for conflict in Somaliland, shaping disputes and influencing recruitment and promotion within the armed forces.

Elections and electoral disputes significantly influence the security landscape in Somaliland. According to an interview with a local human rights lawyer and activist, the electoral process often revolves around clan affiliations, undermining democratic principles and contributing to civil unrest. The rise of political hegemony in Hargeisa has intensified clan-based politics, driven by elites’ ability to advance their economic interests through political channels. The perceived dominance of the Isaaq clan within these power structures has sparked periodic anti-government protests and civil unrest [6].

8. Clan conflicts

Clan conflicts, exacerbated by various factors,² are a significant challenge in Somaliland, particularly in the Togdheer and Sahil regions. These conflicts stem from competition over land and resources among the Isaaq clans, such as the HabarYonis and Issa-Muse, residing in these areas. A recent study by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute highlights how these conflicts, compounded by climate-induced pressures like increased herder-farmer conflicts and competition over land, pose threats to peace and stability in Somaliland [14].

Environmental changes, particularly irregular precipitation and temperature variations have intensified conflicts between herders and farmers throughout East Africa. In Somaliland, these changes have disrupted traditional grazing routes and nomadic mobility patterns, leading to heightened tensions over land and resources. This conflict, according to the UN strategic framework, perpetuates a cycle of violence, hindering local reconciliation efforts and exacerbating disputes over territory, resources, and clan tensions [15].

The Somaliland Development Fund underscores the role of land usage, tenure, and rights as potential triggers for conflict, especially in rural areas where the impact of climate variability is most severe. As a predominantly agrarian society, Somaliland’s economy is highly vulnerable to the shocks caused by climate events, such as recurrent droughts, which further exacerbate resource scarcity and food and water insecurity.

Interviews conducted in December 2023 confirm these dynamics, particularly in rural and remote regions, where climate-induced resource conflicts have contributed to internal displacement and undermined public trust in the government’s ability to maintain peace and stability. Recurrent droughts and flooding, exacerbated by climate variations, have further exacerbated internal displacement, leading to disputes between displaced populations and urban inhabitants over land and resources.

Furthermore, the recurrent occurrence of droughts and floods in specific regions due to climate alteration has led to increased internal displacement, with rural migrants moving to urban centers. This influx has resulted in disputes over land and other resources between internally displaced persons (IDPs) and permanent residents, contributing to a decrease in trust and confidence in the central government.

According to multiple interviewees, competition among clans for resources often triggers disputes that can escalate into armed conflicts. For instance, water scarcity prompts conflicts when pastoralists allow their livestock to graze on farmland during droughts, as seen in the 2020 conflict in Odwayne. Similarly, conflicts over water and grazing land have intensified, exemplified by inter-clan armed clashes in the Ali-Saaid district over borehole water rights due to persistent drought.

The scarcity of arable land and water sometimes reaches a critical point, compelling both farmers and pastoralists to abandon their traditional lifestyles and migrate to urban centers. This migration leads to disputes between IDPs and host communities, exacerbating tensions and straining local commodity supplies, especially food products like milk and meat, which become less accessible and more expensive for the urban poor.

In the future, as the impacts of climate change persist, inter-clan conflicts over natural resources such as grazing land and water are expected to continue, particularly in disputed areas like the Sanaag and Togdheer regions. Additionally, internal migration flows are likely to persist, further straining infrastructure and government institutions such as law enforcement and the judiciary. Moreover, rural-to-urban migrants often lack the education, training, or skills needed to support themselves in urban environments, adding to the challenges faced by both migrants and urban communities.

9. The indelible clan elders’ role

In Somaliland, traditional elders, influential clerics, and community leaders play vital roles in peace processes, a pattern observed elsewhere as well. These elders engage in a form of mediation known as insider-partial mediation, which is characterized by several key factors contributing to their effectiveness [16]. Firstly, traditional elders are deeply embedded within the communities and conflict settings they serve, providing them with first-hand knowledge and understanding of local dynamics. This proximity allows them to navigate complex social structures and relationships with greater insight.

Secondly, they command trust and respect within their communities, earned through years of service and adherence to cultural norms. This credibility enables them to act as impartial mediators, bridging divides and facilitating dialog between conflicting parties. Thirdly, traditional elders wield significant traditional authority and leverage moral persuasion to influence outcomes. Their positions of respect and reverence afford them the ability to guide community members toward reconciliation and peaceful resolution of disputes. Lastly, traditional elders maintain close relationships with their communities, ensuring that their interventions are grounded in the realities and needs of the people they serve. This connection fosters a sense of ownership and legitimacy, enhancing the impact of their mediation efforts.

These distinguishing features set traditional elders apart from formal government justice institutions, making them indispensable actors in peace-building processes. They engage in mediation and negotiation with opposing clans, collaborate with peacekeeping efforts, and serve as essential conduits for Somaliland’s peace and state-building endeavors. During the civil war, clan elders played pivotal roles in establishing stability and security by overseeing the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of former combatants and clan militias. Their leadership was instrumental in organizing reconciliation conferences across various regions, including Borama, Burao, and Hargeisa, all achieved without external support.

Drawing upon customary law (Xeer) and Islamic law (Shari’a), traditional elders employed these frameworks to resolve conflicts and lay the groundwork for lasting peace. Their adept use of indigenous dispute resolution mechanisms contributed significantly to Somaliland’s successful peacebuilding and state-building efforts, setting it apart from the challenges faced by counterparts in South and Central Somalia. In conclusion, the alternative dispute resolution (ADR) processes overseen by traditional elders, rooted in Xeer and Shari’a, are indispensable to maintaining peace and stability in Somaliland. Their unique blend of local knowledge, cultural legitimacy, and moral authority positions them as key architects of peace in the region, ensuring that disputes, particularly those concerning land and water, are resolved peacefully and sustainably.

10. The imbalance between resources allocated for conflicts and those designated for peace-building efforts

In the complex landscape of Somaliland, where the Ali-Saaid conflict continues to deplete vital resources and prolong instability, the significance of resource management in facilitating peace-building endeavors cannot be overstated. This section illuminates the glaring dissonance between the resources allocated for fueling conflicts and those earmarked for fostering peace and stability. It underscores the imperative of meticulous preparation, steadfast long-term commitment, and judicious allocation of resources to translate the collective yearning for peace into tangible realities. However, it also cautions against haphazard resource distribution, which runs the risk of inadvertently exacerbating the conflict, as evidenced by the misuse of livestock in the context of blood compensation rituals.

The stark dissonance between the substantial resources dedicated to fueling conflicts and the comparatively meager allocations for fostering peace and stability is emblematic of a systemic imbalance. While clans mobilize resources with a sense of urgency for conflicts, the process of collecting Diya, essential for blood compensations and peace agreement resources, often languishes. This anomaly underscores a broader societal issue wherein the immediacy of conflict overshadows the vital but less urgent task of nurturing peace. Clans typically harness livestock and monetary contributions from their members to fuel resource mobilization for conflicts, highlighting a cycle wherein resources flow more readily toward perpetuating strife rather than toward sustainable peace-building endeavors. Addressing this dissonance necessitates a fundamental re-evaluation of societal priorities, emphasizing the imperative of allocating resources equitably toward both conflict resolution and peace promotion initiatives.

In addition to the human-induced challenges, environmental degradation, exacerbated by relentless droughts and unchecked overgrazing, compounds the pervasive insecurity gripping Somaliland’s eastern territories. Nomadic pastoralist communities, deeply entrenched in a way of life reliant on livestock for sustenance, find themselves disproportionately impacted by this degradation, hampering their ability to uphold customary practices and discharge obligations like blood compensation. This section advocates for a broadened conception of resources pertinent to peace-building efforts, delineating them into community and clan resources, encompassing tangible assets such as livestock and financial contributions, alongside state resources comprising essential services and infrastructural provisions.

Furthermore, this section underscores the pressing need for holistic strategies that integrate environmental sustainability into peace-building initiatives, recognizing the intrinsic interplay between ecological stability and social harmony. It emphasizes the imperative of fostering resilience within pastoralist communities through sustainable land management practices, targeted interventions aimed at mitigating environmental degradation, and equitable resource distribution mechanisms. By adopting a nuanced approach that addresses the multifaceted dimensions of resource management, Somaliland can chart a more sustainable path toward peace, resilience, and prosperity for all its inhabitants.

11. Institutional, legal, policy and governance gaps

Ultimately, clan elders play a crucial role in driving community change and implementing effective peacekeeping processes. Peace initiatives led by clan elders are known to be effective, with agreements they broker enjoying legitimacy and credibility within the community. These processes have historically contributed to the relative peace and stability that Somaliland currently enjoys, contrasting with other regions of Somalia. Therefore, leveraging the influence and expertise of clan elders remains integral to sustaining peace and stability in the region [17].

Expanding and enhancing upon the institutional, legal, policy, and governance shortcomings that have contributed to clan conflicts in Somaliland reveals a multifaceted challenge rooted in issues concerning resource allocation, governance structures, and law enforcement capacity. Firstly, the historical and cultural significance of water, land, and grazing rights within the context of clan conflicts underscores the urgent need for institutional reforms. Despite their pivotal role in community livelihoods, the mechanisms for managing these resources remain inadequately defined and poorly regulated. This institutional gap perpetuates tensions and exacerbates conflicts as competing claims over scarce resources escalate into violent confrontations.

Legally, the absence of clear frameworks and enforceable regulations exacerbates the situation. Disputes arising from land ownership, access to water sources, and grazing territories often lack transparent resolution mechanisms, leading to prolonged conflicts with no satisfactory outcomes for the involved parties. The lack of legal clarity and enforcement mechanisms only serves to perpetuate grievances and sustain cycles of violence. Furthermore, existing policies aimed at addressing these issues are either insufficient or remain largely unimplemented, particularly in rural areas where the majority of these conflicts occur. The limited presence of law enforcement agencies in rural regions compounds this problem, as communities are left to resolve disputes independently, often resulting in localized violence and retaliatory actions.

The challenges associated with deploying law enforcement resources to remote areas further exacerbate this issue, as logistical constraints hinder the timely intervention necessary to prevent or de-escalate conflicts. To address these institutional, legal, policy, and governance gaps effectively, a comprehensive approach is required. This entails:

• Institutional reforms: establishing robust community-owned, community-led institutions tasked with managing and adjudicating disputes related to land, water, and grazing rights. These institutions should be inclusive, transparent, and equipped with the necessary authority to enforce their decisions.

• Legal frameworks: developing clear and enforceable legal frameworks that fit local realities and context issues that delineate property rights, access to resources, and dispute resolution mechanisms. This includes ensuring access to justice for all parties involved and promoting alternative dispute resolution methods to alleviate the burden on formal legal systems.

• Policy implementation: prioritizing the implementation of existing policies aimed at mitigating clan conflicts, particularly in rural areas. This involves strengthening the capacity of local governments to administer policies effectively and providing adequate resources to support their implementation.

By addressing these fundamental gaps in institutional, legal, policy, and governance frameworks, Somaliland can work toward fostering sustainable peace and stability, mitigating the drivers of clan conflicts, and promoting inclusive development across the region.

12. Conclusion

In Ali-Saaid, a region marked by its complex and evolving environment, maintaining peace and security in Somaliland is intricately linked to internal economic and political stability. Political stability has notably kept extremist groups at bay, contributing to Somaliland’s reputation as one of the most peaceful entities in the Horn of Africa. However, clan dynamics rooted in historical grievances pose a significant challenge, with clan affiliations acting as primary triggers for conflict. These dynamics are further exacerbated by environmental concerns, which disrupt traditional livelihoods, aggravate resource scarcity, and intensify competition for limited resources.

Clannism is deeply ingrained in Somaliland’s governance structures and societal fabric, with clan grievances driving community polarization and challenging historical agreements. Environmental concerns exacerbate these tensions by disrupting traditional patterns of agriculture and nomadic lifestyles, leading to increased conflicts between herders and farmers over land and resources. The resulting disputes often escalate into armed conflicts, further destabilizing the region. Moreover, climate-related events such as recurrent droughts and flooding contribute to internal displacement, straining urban resources and exacerbating tensions between displaced populations and host communities.

Traditional elders, influential clerics, and community leaders play a vital role in peace processes in Somaliland, leveraging their traditional authority and community trust to mediate conflicts and reconcile opposing clans. Their effectiveness in peace-building efforts, particularly through customary dispute resolution mechanisms like Xeer and Shari’a, highlights the importance of indigenous approaches to conflict resolution. However, ongoing challenges such as increasing inter-clan conflicts over resources and internal migration place additional strain on these traditional structures, necessitating sustained efforts to address underlying drivers of fragility and promote inclusive and sustainable peace-building initiatives.

The chapter uncovered several essential factors for the promotion of peace and stability in Somaliland, which directly affect the implementation of the peace agreements. Among these factors, the disproportionate suffering endured by women and vulnerable groups amid conflicts in Somaliland stands as a poignant concern, necessitating the integration of measures to mitigate unintended harm to these populations into any peace-promoting initiative. Furthermore, the delayed settlement of Diya (blood compensations) serves as a trigger for retaliatory actions, underscoring the urgent need for timely resolution to prevent escalation. Additionally, the indispensable role of clan elders emerges as a linchpin in upholding peace and stability, highlighting their pivotal function in resolving disputes that pose threats to Somaliland’s political and economic equilibrium, a role that warrants utmost recognition and support.

Furthermore, the chapter illuminates several critical “flash points” within Somaliland that can exacerbate conflict dynamics, including tensions simmering between clans and sub-clans, exacerbated by factors such as access to dwindling land and water resources, especially pronounced during periods of drought. Additionally, the shift in social norms driven by generational disparities, compounded by rapid urbanization without adequate urban planning, strains on infrastructure, and a dearth of employment opportunities, particularly for young men, serve as additional flashpoints ripe for igniting conflict. Moreover, underlying tensions between internally displaced persons (IDPs) and host communities further compound the volatile landscape, necessitating comprehensive strategies to address these multifaceted challenges in the pursuit of lasting peace and stability within Somaliland.

To conclude, the chapter amidst the backdrop of the Ali-Saaid conflict in Somaliland, a region plagued by resource drain and enduring instability, the imperative role of resources in fostering peace emerges as paramount. This chapter underscores the stark imbalance between resources allocated to fuel conflicts and those earmarked for fostering peace, emphasizing the necessity for deliberate preparation, steadfast long-term commitment, and judicious resource allocation to translate peace aspirations into tangible realities. Yet, it sounds a cautionary note against haphazard resource distribution, which risks inadvertently escalating conflicts, evident in the misappropriation of livestock for blood compensation. Environmental degradation, compounded by factors like severe droughts and rampant overgrazing, further exacerbates insecurity in Somaliland’s eastern regions. Pastoralist communities, heavily reliant on livestock for sustenance, bear the brunt of this degradation, impeding their ability to uphold traditional practices and meet obligations like blood compensation. To address these challenges, the chapter advocates for an expanded conception of resources for peacebuilding, delineating them into community/clan resources (such as livestock and monetary contributions) and state resources (encompassing services and infrastructure), thereby laying the groundwork for sustainable peace initiatives.