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This chapter explores the fundamental concepts of antenna design critical for beyond 5G (B5G) and anticipated 6G technologies. It delves into various antenna types, including microstrip antennas, metamaterial-based designs, reconfigurable antennas, phased array antenna, and lens antennas, highlighting their role in achieving the ultra-high data rates, ultra-low latency, and massive device connectivity envisioned for B5G and 6G networks. The discussion covers key aspects such as beamforming, beam steering, and pattern reconfigurability of antenna arrays, along with interference mitigation strategies. By understanding these diverse antenna systems, researchers and engineers can contribute to shaping the future of wireless communication in the B5G and 6G era.
*Address all correspondence to: ramin.emadian@gmail.com
1. Introduction
In the ever-evolving landscape of wireless communications, the journey from 1G to 4G has revolutionized how we connect, communicate, and navigate the digital realm. Now, as we stand on the precipice of the Beyond 5G (B5G) era and eagerly anticipate the advent of 6G technologies, the demand for groundbreaking antenna systems takes center stage. This chapter embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the intricate world of antenna design, where innovation converges with necessity to unlock the full potential of these next-generation networks.
Wireless communication has become an integral part of our daily lives, shaping how we access information, interact with our surroundings, and engage with a multitude of devices. The progression from 1G’s voice-centric systems to the data-centric networks of 4G has been marked by unprecedented speed and connectivity [1]. However, as we gaze into the future, the limitations of existing technologies become apparent. Enter B5G and 6G, promising not just incremental improvements but a seismic shift in the capabilities of wireless communication. Figure 1 shows the evolutionary growth of wireless technology in terms of data transmission capacity and applications.
Figure 1.
The evolutionary growth of wireless technology in terms of data transmission capacity and applications.
At the heart of this transformative evolution lies the antenna, a technological linchpin that translates digital signals into the physical world and vice versa. Antennas are not mere conduits; they are the gatekeepers enabling the seamless flow of information across vast distances. As we venture into B5G and 6G, the role of antennas becomes even more pronounced, requiring designs that can cater to the unique demands of these advanced communication systems [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. The journey toward B5G and 6G is not without challenges. The need for higher data rates, ultra-low latency, and unprecedented device connectivity introduces complexities that demand innovative solutions. Millimeter-wave frequencies and the exploration of terahertz domains present new frontiers, each with its own set of hurdles that antenna design must overcome [2, 9, 10, 11, 12]. This chapter seeks to unravel these challenges and illuminate the path toward antennas that can navigate the uncharted territories of advanced wireless communication.
As we push the boundaries of connectivity, the electromagnetic spectrum becomes both a canvas and a constraint. This chapter delves into the strategic utilization of spectrum resources, exploring the nuances of millimeter-wave frequencies and delving into the potential of terahertz bands. Concepts like beamforming, massive MIMO, and intelligent antenna arrays come to the force, offering a glimpse into the technologies that will define the antennas of B5G and 6G [13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
As we embark on this journey through the realms of B5G and the anticipated era of 6G, this chapter beckons researchers, engineers, and enthusiasts to join the exploration of antenna evolution. By providing a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art in antenna design, this chapter aims to empower those at the forefront of technological innovation, equipping them with the knowledge and insights needed to shape the wireless communication landscape of the future.
Join us as we unravel the mysteries of antenna evolution and step into the transformative potential that awaits in the realm of Beyond 5G and 6G applications.
Having established the groundwork, let us delve into the evolving landscape of antenna design tailored for B5G and 6G applications. Antennas in these advanced networks are not just communication conduits; they are catalysts for innovation. The spectrum of possibilities broadens as we explore unconventional designs, including compact microstrip antennas, metamaterial-based antennas, reconfigurable antennas, and intelligent adaptive arrays. These designs aim to address the unique challenges posed by the increasing the demand for higher data rates, lower latency, and massive device connectivity.
Microstrip antennas emerge as key contenders in this landscape, offering a versatile and scalable solution for next-generation communication networks. Microstrip antennas are planar antennas that find widespread applications in modern communication systems. Their inherent advantages, including low profile, ease of fabrication, and compatibility with integrated circuits, make them particularly appealing for B5G and 6G scenarios. Microstrip antennas are inherently compact, making them suitable for applications where size constraints are critical, such as in small and wearable devices. Microstrip antennas can be seamlessly integrated with integrated circuits, enabling the development of highly integrated and miniaturized communication modules for B5G and 6G devices. Microstrip antennas can be designed to operate across multiple frequency bands, facilitating the diverse spectrum requirements of advanced communication systems [18, 19, 20, 21]. It is anticipated that two frequency bandwidths are allocated for B5G and 6G applications. The lower spectrum is estimated to be from 3 GHz to 20 GHz, and the upper spectrum is estimated to be from 0.1 THz to 10 THz to satisfy the ever-increasing demand of data transmission capacity required for emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), virtual reality, Internet of Things, biomedical sensors, and microwave imaging. Recently, many techniques are introduced to enhance the bandwidth of the microstrip antennas and achieve super-wideband antennas covering frequencies from 2.5 GHz up to more than 20 GHz which is suitable for the lower frequency band of B5G and 6G applications. Figure 2 shows the geometry of a microstrip slot antenna, applying a pair of T-shaped slits in the ground plane to enhance the antenna’s bandwidth and extend it to 23 GHz [22]. In [23], a pair of semi-circle slots in the ground plane along with a truncated radiation patch are applied to highly enhance the bandwidth of the antenna to more than 23 GHz as shown in Figure 3. On the other hand, because of very wide bandwidth of the above-mentioned antennas, interferences can occur with other coexisting narrow band systems operating within 3–20 GHz such as WiMAX (3.3–3.7 GHz) and WLAN (5–6 GHz) systems. To avoid these interferences, various filtering structures are incorporated inside these antennas’ geometry. As displayed in Figure 2, in [22], two inverse L-shaped stubs and a central T-shaped stub are connected to the fork-shaped radiation patch in order to achieve dual band-notched properties. In [23], two S-shaped slits are cut in the ground plane, and a circle-like ring slot is etched in the radiation patch to obtain band-rejected properties. It can be seen from Figure 2(b) and Figure 3 that two peaks in the VSWR diagrams can occur at WiMAX and WLAN spectra due to the presence of these filtering structures. As mentioned in [23], the wide bandwidth characteristics of the above-mentioned antennas can be applied in impulsive systems for biomedical and healthcare applications where ultra-short pulses are required to detect cancer cells and tissues in the breast and brain. In [24], the effect of a super wideband antenna with triple band-notched characteristics on different types of pulses including modulated Gaussian (MG) and square-root-raised cosine (SRRC) pulses in different scenarios is investigated. The antenna has a bandwidth of 2.5–20 GHz and provides triple band-notched properties (see Figure 4). To assess the capability of the antenna for sending and receiving short pulses without distortions, the received pulses and their frequency responses are simulated and measured as shown in Figure 5. The system fidelity factor which is a measure of similarity between two signals should be more than 50% to gain a reliable wireless communication. The antenna and filtering structures applied into the antenna geometry can cause distortions and ringing effects on transmitting and receiving pulses.
Figure 2.
(a) Fabricated super wideband antenna presented in [22], and (b) VSWR of the antenna.
Figure 3.
Super wideband antenna proposed in [23] and its VSWR.
Figure 4.
Geometry and VSWR of the antenna introduced in [24].
Figure 5.
The effect of the antenna in [24] on SRRC pulse: (a) time domain and (b) frequency domain in the face-to-face scenario.
In [24], the system fidelity factor values are more than 80% for SRRC pulses in different scenarios indicating the suitability of this antenna for B5G and 6G impulsive radio applications. Additionally, some microstrip antennas are designed to cover the terahertz (THz) spectrum [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Figure 6 demonstrates a recently designed microstrip antenna operating at a bandwidth of 345–375 GHz [25]. The antenna is designed on an A6 M Ferro LTCC substrate with εr = 5.99, thickness of 75 μm, loss tangent of 0.002, and the overall size of 600 × 600 μm2. A stepped microstrip feed-line and a rectangular radiation patch is employed to achieve acceptable gain and bandwidth in the THz spectrum as shown in Figure 6(b) and (c). In [26], a Z-shaped patch antenna is realized on Rogers 6006 substrate with εr = 6.15, thickness of 127 μm, and loss tangent of 0.0027 providing dual-band and left-handed circularly polarized (LHCP) characteristics as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6.
(a) Geometry of the rectangular THz microstrip antenna. (b) Return loss and (c) radiation pattern.
Figure 7.
(a) Geometry of Z-shaped patch THz microstrip antenna. (b) Return loss and (c) radiation pattern.
The antenna is covering 0.19–0.24 THz and 0.57–0.59 THz bands, with a maximum gain of 5.8 dBi. The LHCP properties can be achieved at 45° in boresight.
Despite their advantages, microstrip antennas face challenges related to radiation gain and directivity to overcome the severe path losses in B5G and 6G propagation environments. Researchers and engineers are actively addressing these challenges through innovative design techniques, such as metamaterial integration, advanced feeding techniques, and novel substrate materials.
3.1 Metamaterial array antennas
As indicated in the previous section to solve the path loss and atmospheric absorption in B5G and 6G frequency regimes, one way is to employ array antennas providing high directivity and radiation gain. To more clarify how the array works please consider Figure 8. In Figure 8(a), a single isotropic antenna and its radiation at half of the pattern is depicted. The antenna radiates out a sine wave, where the light curves are where the signal has high power and the dark lines are where the signal has low power. This antenna radiates equally in all directions; therefore, it has no directivity. In Figure 8(b), we have an array configuration including two elements that are placed half a wavelength away and are also radiating out the exact same sine wave. Along the horizontal axis, it can be seen that the two waves are exactly out of phase with each other since the light part of one overlaps the dark part of the other. This means that when one signal is high, the other is low, and when those two signals are combined, they cancel out each other and very little energy in these directions remains. However, if we look in the vertical direction, it can be seen that the two signals are almost in phase with each other. This means both signals are low or high at the same time, and they constructively add in this direction. Recently, many array antenna configurations for mm wave and THz applications are presented [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32].
Figure 8.
(a) Radiation of a single element omnidirectional antenna and (b) radiation of a two-element array antenna.
In [26], a 2 × 32 antenna array is designed and fabricated to operate in 37.5 GHz. The antenna is realized on the Rogers 5880 substrate with a relative permittivity of 2.2 and loss-tangent of 0.0009.
The single element employed to build the array construction is a fork-shaped patch microstrip antenna with a gain of 7.6 dBi, while the full array antenna with 64 elements exhibits a gain of 21.2 dBi. Figure 9(a) shows the fabricated array antenna, and Figure 9(b) and (c) demonstrate the return loss and radiation patterns of the array antenna with different numbers of elements.
Figure 9.
(a) Geometry of 64-element array antenna. (b) Return loss and (c) radiation pattern in boresight [27].
Metamaterial antennas enable the creation of compact and lightweight designs, facilitating miniaturization of devices [28]. This is particularly advantageous in the context of B5G and 6G technologies, where there is a growing demand for smaller and more directive communication devices.
Metamaterials offer unique electromagnetic properties that can be tailored to enhance the antenna performance. This includes improved radiation gain, directivity, and bandwidth, addressing the demand for higher data rates and spatial coverage in advanced wireless networks. Metamaterial antennas can be designed to operate across multiple frequency bands, supporting the diverse spectrum requirements of B5G and 6G technologies. This flexibility is crucial as these networks integrate a wide range of frequency bands to meet the demands of various applications.
Metamaterials can be engineered to adapt to changing environmental conditions and communication scenarios. This adaptability is beneficial in B5G and 6G networks, where dynamic spectrum sharing, massive connectivity, and diverse communication modes are expected to be prevalent. However designing metamaterial antennas have several challenges including complex design and fabrication, sensitivity to manufacturing tolerances, and frequency band limitations. Usually, an array of unit cells which produce un-natural constitutive material characteristics (negative primitively and permeability) is employed to improve the properties of the antenna. Figure 10 demonstrates that a layer of rectangular split ring resonators as metamaterial unit-cells is placed over the antenna to enhance the gain of the antenna [29]. The antenna consists of a pair of 1 × 16 Wilkinson power dividers and a pair of 16 × 20 radiation patches realized on a Rogers 4003 substrate to operate at the THz spectrum (115 GHz). Figure 11 shows the 3-dimensional radiation patterns of the antenna with and without metamaterial superstrate at 115 GHz. As we can see from the figure, the radiation gain of the antenna is improved about 1 dB in the presence of the metamaterial layer.
Figure 10.
(a) Geometry of an array antenna in [29], (b) metamaterial surface, (c) array antenna with metamaterial superstrate over microstrip feed-line, and (d) cross-sectional view of the antenna with metamaterial layer poisoned over it.
Figure 11.
3-dimensional radiation pattern of the antenna (a) without metamaterial superstrate and (b) with metamaterial superstrate [29].
In addition to the fact that the antennas must have high gains, they must have the ability to steer the main beam because 5G and 6G cellular networks have many mobile users and it requires a very reliable link as indicated in Figure 12(a). Also, there is the possibility of blocking line of sight connection in crowded and dense environments. The capability of the rotating beam provides the connection from other routes as shown in Figure 12(b).
Figure 12.
The advantages of beam steering in B5G and 6G networks: (a) multiuser capacity and (b) multipath channel capacity.
4.1 Pattern reconfigurable array antennas
Pattern reconfigurable array antennas are a promising technology for 6G wireless communication systems, offering the ability to adapt their radiation patterns dynamically to meet the requirements of different communication scenarios. These antennas play a crucial role in enhancing the performance, reliability, and efficiency of communication systems in the 6G era. These antennas enable dynamic beamforming, allowing the antenna system to adjust the direction of its radiation pattern in real-time. This capability is vital for 6G networks that will require efficient beam steering to support diverse communication scenarios. Pattern reconfigurable antennas can be designed to adapt to different frequency bands, ensuring compatibility with the diverse spectrum requirements of 6G.
In [30], a conformal reconfigurable array antenna for mm wave applications is reported. The overall antenna geometry in both cylindrical and planer configurations as well as a 2 × 1 unit-cell is depicted in Figure 13. The antenna consisting of a 2 × 16 planar array is fabricated on a polyimide substrate with height of 0.27 mm which is conformal. It is noted that the planar array’s beam steering covers less than 180°. However, such beam coverage seems to be sufficient, electronic devices are mainly subjected to dynamic orientations by their users and can be situated in orientations where individuals unintentionally block signals. To address this problem and achieve a 360° coverage, the array is wrapped around a cylindrical structure with an outer polyimide substrate layer and an inner ground plane. The array is fed in parallel by using microstrip transmission lines. In each state, only 2 × 2 unit cells are fed. 14 PIN diodes are employed to switch between all eight states. Figure 14 demonstrates the return loss and radiation patterns of the antenna for different states. Clearly, return loss curves are acceptable for all states at 28 GHz, and the radiation patterns dynamically cover 360°.
Figure 13.
Pattern reconfigurable array antenna (a) planar configuration, (b) a 2 × 1 unit-cell, and (c) cylindrecalconfiguration [30].
Figure 14.
(a) Return loss and (b) radiation pattern of antenna in [30] at 8 different states.
4.2 Phased array antennas
As we discussed earlier, it is evident that a really sharp beam can be formed with an array of antennas [31]. Generally, the sharper main lobe can be achieved by employing more elements in the array. In this section, it is worthy to know how the shape of the beam can actually be more controlled rather than just adjusting the position and orientation of the main beam. In phased array antennas, by phase shifting, the beam can be steered. Nevertheless, creating the main lobe and positioning it at the desired signal is not the only issue we care about in the phased array antenna. In this case, the quality of the signal, and particularly how much signal can be received compared to noise and interference, is important. And, the environments are full of noise and interference. Considering Figure 15, now, without regarding the source, potentially, we have a desired signal in some direction that we would like to maximize (shown in blue) and interference in others that we want to minimize (indicated by yellow). Ideally, the objective is to direct a focused beam toward the signal, aiming for low array gain in the interference direction. The goal is to achieve a satisfactory signal-to-noise-plus-interference ratio at the receiver. However, it is important to acknowledge the presence of side lobes, which, although having lower gain than the main lobe, can still be impactful if there is a strong interference signal from that specific direction. In a phased array antenna, we have the ability to regulate side lobe levels by adjusting the amplitude of each element. By modifying the phase of individual elements, we can steer the main lobe toward the desired signal direction. Simultaneously, fine-tuning the element amplitudes allows for the suppression of interferences while maintaining the constancy of the main beam. The weight vector illustrated in Figure 15 serves as both a phase and amplitude tuner. Figure 16 demonstrates that, by combining several weight vectors, we can attain multiple-beam properties, enabling the simultaneous coverage of more users and systems. In [32], a phased array antenna system with separated phase and amplitude electrical controllers is presented. The geometry of the antenna is shown in Figure 17 including 16 subarrays, 16 beamforming receiving RF (BF-RFM) units, a control/power board, and a 16-way feed network. The 16-dipole antenna subarray was partitioned into two 8x1 subarrays, each linked to its respective BF-RFM. The development of the phased-array antenna involved the individual design, fabrication, and measurement of each antenna subsystem. Low-loss and in-phase coaxial cables were utilized to connect the subarrays to their corresponding 16 BF-RFMs. Similarly, 16 coaxial cables were employed to establish connections between the BF-RFM output ports and the 16-way feed network.
Figure 15.
Beamforming of the phased array antenna: (a) without interference mitigation and (b) with interference mitigation.
Figure 16.
(a) A single phased array antenna, (b) two separated phased array antennas, and (c) two merged phased array antennas.
Figure 17.
A single phased array antenna, (b) two separated phased array antennas, and (c) two merged phased array antennas [32].
The power/control board was specifically designed to supply power and control bits to the 16 BF-RFMs. As depicted in Figure 18, the BF-RFM comprised a two-way power combiner for joining two 8x1 arrays, three low-noise amplifiers (LNAs) to ensure low-noise performance and adequate system gain, a phase shifter, and a digital attenuator for modifying the phase and amplitude and of each radiating element. Utilizing low-loss and in-phase coaxial cables, the two input ports (Pin 1 and Pin 2) were merged with two 8 × 1 arrays, while the single output port (Pout) was linked to the 16-way feed network. Figure 19 shows the radiation pattern of the antenna in the azimuth and elevation plane. It can be seen that the main beam and side-lobe levels can be easily controlled.
Figure 18.
(a) Schematic and (b) image of beamforming receiving RF [32].
Figure 19.
(a) Schematic and (b) image of beamforming receiving RF [32].
4.3 Lens antennas
Lens antennas, a crucial component in advanced communication systems, play a pivotal role in B5G and 6G applications. These antennas leverage electromagnetic lenses to manipulate signals, enhancing communication capabilities in unprecedented ways. The design of lens antennas for B5G and 6G era necessitates careful consideration of frequency bands, beamforming requirements and seamless integration with evolving communication systems. Adapting to the unique demands of these networks is essential for optimal performance.
Exploring materials tailored for lens antennas and employing cutting-edge manufacturing methods becomes imperative. Advancements in material science and fabrication techniques contribute to achieving the precision required for these next-generation communication systems. Lens antennas contribute significantly to beam steering and beamforming in B5G and 6G networks. Their ability to focus signals directionally enhances the efficiency and reliability of communication, supporting the dynamic requirements of these advanced systems. Synergistic integration with metamaterials amplifies the capabilities of lens antennas in the future wireless networks.
Addressing challenges specific to lens antennas in B5G and 6G networks is paramount. Robust solutions, including advanced signal processing algorithms and adaptive control mechanisms, are key to overcoming obstacles and ensuring optimal antenna performance.
Various lens-based beamformers including Ruze, Rotman, and Luneburg structures are employed to design lens antennas. Ruze lenses demonstrate multiple authentic focal points, resulting in minimal phase aberrations across a broader scanning range. However, the constrained design of these lenses introduces limitations due to port discretization, particularly influenced by the technology of the transmission line. Seeking to address these constraints, a novel approach known as the continuous parallel-plate waveguide (PPW) beamformer was introduced [32]. This beamformer transforms the cylindrical wave, launched by a primary feed (e.g., sectoral horns in Figure 20(a)), as it propagates within the PPW section, converting it into a quasi-plane wave radiated into free space, and vice versa. The required delay correction for this wave transformation is achieved through a PPW lens with transversal ridge and cavity features (see Figures 20(b) and 19(c), labeled 1 and 2 for inner and outer contours). By employing a bifocal constrained lens approximation, this design is anticipated to exhibit two focal points, F1 and F2 (as shown in Figure 20(a)), primarily regulated by adjusting the ridge height (hw in Figure 20(c)).
Figure 20.
PPW lens beamformer: (a) 3D view, (b) cross sectional view, (c) focus on the transversal cavity, and (d) simulated (dash line) and measured (solid line) radiation pattern of the manufactured PPW beamformer in the H-plane at f0 = 10.7 GHz [33].
Rotman lenses have found widespread utility in wireless communication systems. However, the conventional version tends to be excessively large, particularly at lower operating frequencies, making integration with base station antennas in cellular communication systems challenging when compared to circuit-based beamforming techniques. To address this size constraint, an innovative approach was proposed in [34] involving the use of dielectric material to load the parallel plate region of the Rotman lens, aiming to reduce its overall dimensions. The authors detail in Ref. [34] the realization of a compact Rotman lens-fed antenna array designed for cellular wireless applications. This lens-fed antenna adopts a multi-layer configuration, consisting of two layers, resulting in a design with a low profile and a relatively small footprint. This compact form factor makes it particularly appealing for applications where size is a crucial factor. The prototype of this designed antenna is illustrated in Figure 21.
Figure 21.
Two-layer Rotman lens-fed antenna presented in [34]: (a) geometry, (b) fabricated prototype, and (c) simulated and measured radiation pattern.
In the mentioned systems, inherent phase errors exist across the apertures for the majority of multiple beams due to constrained lens designs, which typically offer only a limited number of true focal points, resulting in a scanning range typically not exceeding ±50 degrees. In contrast, Luneburg lenses and their derivatives emerge as highly desirable multi-beam lens antennas since, theoretically, they exhibit no phase errors for any pointing direction. Recent advancements in 3D printing techniques, known for high accuracy fabrication at a low cost, have garnered significant attention from researchers focusing on Luneburg lenses. An illustrative example is found in Ref. [35], where a novel 3D printed Luneburg lens, fed by a dual-polarized magnetoelectric (ME) dipole, was introduced. The design prototype successfully generated nine beams across the entire Ka-band, making it a promising candidate for multi-beam cellular applications. The structural details are depicted in Figure 22.
Figure 22.
Luneburg lens-based antenna in [35] with multiple magnetoelectric dipole feeds. (a) Geometry. (b) Radiation patterns of the multi-beam antenna at 32 GHz. (c) Photo of the prototype of the antenna.
4.4 Massive MIMO arrays
Massive multiple input and multiple output (MIMO) array leverages the spatial dimension to serve multiple users concurrently by transmitting unique data streams to each user on the same time-frequency resource; in other words, it crates multiple channel communications [36, 37]. This spatial multiplexing capability significantly improves the spectral efficiency. The use of a large number of antennas and spatial processing techniques allows for efficient beamforming, which enhances the link quality and spectral efficiency of the communication system required for B5G and 6G era. Massive MIMO can provide improved signal quality, reduced interference, and better coverage, especially in challenging environments with obstacles or signal blockage. Also, massive MIMO systems can achieve energy efficiency gains by exploiting spatial multiplexing and beamforming, leading to better utilization of resources and reduced interference. Figure 23 illustrates a massive MIMO array with 256 elements. The Anokiwave AWMF-0139 IC, which houses four antenna modules, serves as a transceiver module. A total of 64 of these ICs are connected to the 256 elements, processing and generating various signals while controlling different beams to cover multiple users in the 5G and 6G eras.
Figure 23.
An instance of massive MIMO arrays for cellular networks.
Table 1 summarizes types and characteristics of the antennas discussed in this chapter for B5G and 6 G applications.
In conclusion, this chapter explored the fundamental concepts of various antenna systems critical for beyond 5G (B5G) and anticipated 6G technologies. We delved into microstrip antennas, metamaterials, reconfigurable antennas, phased array, and lens antennas, highlighting their contributions to achieving the ultra-high data rates, ultra-low latency, and massive device connectivity envisioned for B5G and 6G networks. These advancements in antenna design are not only crucial for efficient communication but will also pave the way for the development of novel B5G and 6G applications that will redefine how we connect, interact, and experience the digital world.
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Written By
Seyed Ramin Emadian
Submitted: 04 January 2024Reviewed: 26 February 2024Published: 26 June 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
