Modelling as an Instructional Strategy in Multilingual Classrooms

Abstract

This chapter introduces modelling as an instructional strategy used by teachers to facilitate comprehension in multilingual classrooms. Modelling is a teaching approach in which the teacher openly demonstrates to the students how to execute tasks. Studies have indicated that a deficiency of modelling causes competency in the learning and teaching environment to take longer. Reinforced by theoretical frameworks such as sociocultural theory and culturally responsive pedagogy, this analysis adopted an interpretive paradigm and a qualitative approach. Semi-structured interviews were administered to six conveniently chosen English second language teachers in a Higher Institution of learning in South Africa. Outcomes of the data, which were thematically analysed, indicated that scaffolding through explicit vocabulary instruction, contextualised learning and collaborative activities, and the use of multimedia texts through flipped classrooms could be effective strategies in multilingual classrooms. Enhancing the quality of learning in both online and offline learning environments necessitates the use of effective teaching strategies like modelling and scaffolding, in addition to providing enough academic assistance. With a variety of developing pedagogies and technology advancements in the post-COVID-19 era, instructors must be proficient in applying updated instructional approaches that will empower students to process knowledge in a way that will satisfy twenty-first-century demands.

1. Introduction

The use of English as a second language in education has significantly changed in recent years due to factors including multiculturalism, globalisation, and the growing need for English proficiency in a variety of spheres of life. As the world has grown more multilingual, there is a greater need than ever for creative methods that take into account the linguistic diversity of ESL students [1]. Modelling can be quite helpful for ESLs because academic language is the final kind of language they need to master. ESLs are disproportionately failed by teachers who administer tasks without giving students proper guidance and then expect their students to work hard and succeed in those activities [1].

Modelling, which is the foundation for scaffolding, is a teaching strategy where a teacher explicitly shows the students how to complete an activity or assignment before they begin a task. Modelling involves teachers’ demonstrations of how learning activities should be executed. This chapter explores various modelling strategies that can be adopted by teachers in multilingual classrooms. These include scaffolding, activation of learners’ background knowledge, explicit vocabulary instruction, and technology-assisted learning. Scaffolding involves the use of various strategies in the classroom to ensure that learning material is comprehensible and absorbed in manageable chunks. Background knowledge includes the introduction of new vocabulary in a text and has a strong influence on meaning construction. Explicit vocabulary instruction is defined as the focused study of words, which involves antonyms, synonyms, word formation, etc. [2]. Quizzes and puzzles include the scrambling and rearrangement of words, which results in vocabulary development.

This chapter begins with a brief review of multilingualism. Multilingualism is the capacity of a speaker to converse in several languages with equal and native-like skills [3]. Multilingualism can also be defined as the coexistence of many languages within a community [4]. These many languages may be national or international, official or informal, and local or foreign [4]. Official multilingualism is typically explicitly stated in the nation’s constitution and is put into practice in a variety of contexts, including national and international official interactions and the operations of the education sector. In the education centre, teaching and learning in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary educational settings use formal language. Parliamentary sessions, court procedures, and both domestic and international conferences are examples of official engagements. Multilingualism, as a concept, is not a new phenomenon. Research shows that throughout Europe up to the nineteenth century, multi-ethnic and multilingual monarchic empires like the Ottoman, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian empires dominated political life. Although a single ethnic group dominated these empires, they were typically distinguished by linguistic, religious, and ethnic tolerance. For instance, the Greek-speaking Phanariots controlled a large portion of Ottoman Empire governance [5].

Additionally, multilingualism is, and in many cases, still the norm in India, China, Africa, and the pre-conquest civilisations of America. Even while lingua francae and dominant languages like English, Hindi, Swahili, and classical Chinese developed in the past, other languages and dialects were typically not negatively impacted by this [5]. This suggests that the existence of multi-dialects in society is not threatened by the dominance of English as a lingua franca. Instead, a lingua franca is an intermingling factor that accommodates all members of the society irrespective of race and colour. Therefore, a language pedagogy that accommodates the many dialects of learners is required; this pedagogy will promote both academic and linguistic growth. In this context, the author makes the case that modelling is a practical teaching technique that will help all students. In most nations in the twenty-first century, multilingualism is a major concern.

A number of scholars promote multilingualism [3, 6, 7, 8] due to its ability to incorporate the learners’ primary languages in the classroom. Multilingualism is encouraged under the South African Language in Education policy, which recognises human rights, that is, the right to use one’s language. To raise everyone’s self-esteem, all 11 official languages in South Africa are recognised [9]. In addition to fostering an atmosphere that values respect for languages other than one’s own, multilingualism aims to promote communication across barriers of race, language, and geography [9]. There is a claim that learning is more effective and successful when it is done in a way that allows pupils to speak freely. Furthermore, it is asserted that utilising students’ diversity in the classroom allows them to reach “deep learning” and lets them utilise their own ability. Additionally, learning in students’ native tongues improves their linguistic, social, cognitive, and emotional growth both within and outside of the classroom. These arguments support the notion that pupils should receive an education through their own variety [4].

Conversely, according to a study by Akbar and Taqi [6], translanguaging in a bilingual classroom helps students understand the material and information thoroughly, but it has no influence on language proficiency. Moreover, in a multilingual environment, it has been noted that in written and spoken communicative practices, fluency in one language usually prevails over the others [4]. Similarly, in a study by Grain, et al. [10], whose goal was to evaluate how multilingualism, perceived language barriers, and English language proficiency affect international students’ academic performance, multiple regression analysis showed that multilingualism and English language proficiency have a significant impact on students’ academic performance. Several researchers have demonstrated that multilingualism reduced language proficiency, and challenges with speaking, writing, reading, and listening have a significant negative influence on academic achievement [11, 12].

Language experts, educationalists, and researchers have long been concerned about dialects and education in multilingual societies, specifically with selecting which variety to utilise as a language of teaching [13]. This is due to the challenging and contentious nature of choosing which variety to utilise as a language of instruction in a multilingual culture [14]. Furthermore, selecting the language of instruction is primarily influenced by a number of variables, including, among others, pedagogical, cultural, political, historical, sociolinguistic, and ideological issues [15]. For these reasons, the incorporation of dialects in educational system is questionable and contentious. In countries like South Africa, which are characterised by multi-dialects, which include all the Nguni languages, Xhosa, Ndebele, Zulu, Venda, Tsonga, Sotho, Tswana etc., multilingual education is a highly controversial issue, particularly in the Higher Educational Institutions.

This chapter is, therefore, intended to discuss how modelling, as an instructional strategy, can be incorporated in multilingual classrooms. Contemporary classrooms are multicultural and, thus, characterised by multiple dialects in which different dialects of the same language exist. In this chapter, the author is of the opinion that, in a multilingual and multicultural context, where learners have different linguistic backgrounds, teachers should opt for instructional practices that will benefit all learners regardless of their race, colour, and socioeconomic background. This chapter explores the concept of a modelling strategy for ESL teaching and learning, which recognises the prevalence of multidialectal classrooms. By doing so, this approach seeks to enhance the effectiveness of ESL instruction, facilitate cultural understanding, and empower learners to become more confident and proficient English speakers.

Given the wide-ranging and pervasive influence of online learning in every educational sector around the globe today, it is imperative to investigate the advantages of scaffolding as an instructional strategy to enhance learning outcomes in online learning [16]. Leaders in American education, business, community, and government are collaborating to highlight the importance of twenty-first-century skills for every student, according to The Partnership for twenty-first century Learning [17]. They acknowledge that in light of the world’s constant change, twenty-first-century learners must have information and communication skills, thinking and problem-solving abilities, interpersonal and self-direction skills, and other abilities in order to be prepared for the challenges of the twenty-first century and beyond. One way is to use twenty-first-century tools so that learners can be assisted in developing twenty-first-century abilities, as recommended by the Partnership for twenty-first century Learning [17].

Information and communication technology, including computers, social media, media, audio, video, and other technologies, undoubtedly plays a significant role in the learning environment of the twenty-first century [18, 19]. These modern resources help students apply what they have learned in the classroom more successfully. With the use of these resources, the typical classroom will change from having teachers at the centre of the space to having students as the most important component [20]. The twenty-first century’s advanced technology presents both renewed opportunities and difficulties for communities everywhere. As a result, students in the twenty-first century must be well prepared with the subject-matter expertise and all required abilities for their lifestyle and future careers. Thus, modelling will equip learners with language proficiency skills that will enable them to access information from Internet sources.

While modelling will help all students, it will be especially helpful for English language learners. In the classroom, ESLs are overwhelmed with several impediments; these include, among others, limited vocabulary and the exoticness of the language itself to them. It takes years to become completely proficient in speaking, reading, writing, and listening in a foreign language since these talents are so multifaceted. For ESLs, therefore, achieving success in the classroom can be traumatic. Similar to their peers who speak English as their first language, teachers must assist ESLs in succeeding. Students who learn by modelling become more engaged and imaginative as they keep in mind that learning will have greater significance if cognitive, emotive, and psychomotor processes are coordinated [21]. When modelling, pupils pick up skills by seeing and mimicking the actions of the model. Because there are so many learning support resources available to students, teachers can organise learning activities both within and outside of the classroom [20]. In light of this, this chapter suggests modelling as a teaching technique for classes with several languages.

2. Literature review

Studies have indicated that modelling learning is a critical component of social learning [22]. The instructor has a strategic role in developing a technique, approach, or strategy that is thought to be acceptable to accomplish learning objectives when it comes to learning strategies [20]. A few different modelling techniques are using quizzes and puzzles to simulate classroom activities, providing explicit vocabulary education to learners, building learners’ vocabulary through scaffolding, and making demonstrations. Due to its ability to increase student engagement and improve learning results, scaffolding has drawn a lot of attention as an effective instructional method [23]. New developments in higher education, according to Brown et al. [24], include a more diverse student body, more options for pursuing an education, and the steady expansion of online learning. Higher education is becoming more and more dependent on online learning as varied student populations want more and more learning experiences.

There are factors that need to be considered by teachers for effective and efficient modelling to take place. These include differentiation and the inclusion of interactive learning activities. According to Richards and Rodgers [25], differentiation is the recognition of the differences among learners in terms of their age, gender, background, culture, area of interest, aptitude, language proficiency, exposure to the target language, and other factors. While it is important that all students experience the target language in all of its depth and richness, it would be ineffective from an educational standpoint to subject them all to the same standards and teaching strategies for the whole academic year. Dussling [26] postulates that English teachers should understand their learners’ literacy and oral proficiency levels to adjust their instructional practices.

Interactive learning activities refer to where learners are actively engaged with one another or with a variety of texts. While consolidating the abilities and methods they have already learned, the exercises should enable learners to experiment with a variety of languages. A few examples of such activities below, as outlined by Richards and Rodgers [25], include:-

• The use of songs to practice specific language structures.

• The use of games and puzzles to practice vocabulary, idiomatic language use, sentence structure, etc.

• The use of pair and group work for listening, speaking, reading and writing assignments.

• The creation of situations which call for improvisation and role play and which will provide learners with the opportunity to use a variety of registers and nonverbal skills.

• The use of story chains to practice predictions, tense sequence, and understanding of story structure.

Learner-centred, participatory, and personally relevant activities should be the focus of classroom instruction during modelling. Group and pair work are the most effective ways to do this. Teachers’ ought to foster an environment where students can use the target language with fun, curiosity, and purpose [27]. Since stress, humiliation, and embarrassment are known to impede learning, every effort should be taken to create a loving, stress-free environment [19, 25]. One of the measures in the Council of the European Union’s [28]) Strategic Framework for Education that aims to ensure the efficacy and consistency of the development of the quality of the learning process, is based on a learner-centred approach, along with the principles of social justice, inclusion, and access to education.

Research has shown that language development takes place most effectively when learners are actively involved in a variety of activities which demand that they apply their listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in an integrated manner. Furthermore, when the learning environment is supportive and encouraging, even hesitant learners are willing to participate in language activities. Learners actively participate in a contextualised learning environment. Contextualised learning and teaching refers to any teaching and learning activity which takes place within the context of a specific situation, whether real or simulated. Thus, texts, ranging from written, oral and multimedia texts, can serve as platforms for contextualised learning [25].

Compared to traditional modelling, interactive modelling is a straightforward, fast-paced method of instruction that can help students gain a deeper understanding of their subjects. It works well for teaching any activity or skill that students must complete in a particular method, such as discussing a reading selection with a partner or filling out an answer form. Unlike traditional modelling or lecturing, interactive modelling helps students understand the anticipated behaviour, pays close attention to details, and provides them with direct practice and feedback from the teacher. This is why interactive modelling is effective [29]. Interactive modelling incorporates key elements of effective teaching: these include demonstrating, and including students in the learning process, and evaluating their comprehension right away. Students learn skills and meet expectations more successfully and quickly when they are taught through interactive modelling. This method can assist students in developing the academic abilities necessary for high achievement and position them for success across the curriculum [29].

Modelling starts with the teacher demonstrating reading to the learners. Reading is key to understanding texts. Demonstrations involve reading aloud to the students, which helps them become more fluent readers. One of the elements of reading that the National Reading Panel [30] defined is fluency, along with phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, and comprehension. The panel discovered strong evidence that fluency-building education is essential for understanding as well as future reading success. Fluency is the capacity to accurately read a text at different levels of difficulty, at the right speed, with logical wording and prosodic expression, and with little conscious focus on reading mechanics [30].

Demonstrating prosody during reading is essential because it enables learners to derive the meaning of a text. Prosody refers to reading with excellent expression and intonation, including pitch, tone, loudness, and word emphasis. Learners should pause properly at the conclusion of sentences. Across all school levels, readers who read aloud with good expression typically comprehend well [31]. The importance of prosody was emphasised in the National Reading Panel’s 2000 meta-analysis on reading instruction [30]. The report noted that reading fluency and comprehension are positively impacted by explicit instruction in prosodic features, and the panel suggested incorporating prosody into reading instruction to help students become proficient readers. Decoding and word recognition are also aided by prosody. It facilitates the identification of word meanings, grammatical structures, and limits by readers. Readers can increase reading accuracy and their capacity to understand new words by employing prosodic signals [32].

It is evident that educational processes are evolving; hence, modelling forms in virtual learning environments need to be justified and reflected. With the aim of putting the learner at the centre of the process and understanding learning as a social process in which students apply different learning styles, methods, and techniques in accordance with the objectives of the learning objectives and develop a trust-based learning culture, the virtual teaching and learning environment is positioned as an inevitable vision [33]. People of all ages, from all cultural backgrounds, speaking all languages, and regardless of ability or other complications, can participate in virtual learning environments [33]. The alteration of prevailing educational paradigms is invariably linked to the representations of the virtual learning environment. The educational paradigm is significantly impacted by the problems presented by globalisation and technology [34]. To create students who can fulfil the demands of the twenty-first century, technology must be integrated into language learning and instruction.

Research has shown that the use of breakout rooms in online teaching is not a novel phenomenon. Chandler [35] reported that the benefit of using breakout rooms effectively is that they encourage student engagement and collaborative learning. A study on encouraging student cooperation in virtual breakout rooms with interactive group activities was carried out by Read et al. [36]. Their study described how Teams can use cooperative small groups that are facilitated by breakout rooms. The majority of students expressed enjoyment for the exercises and thought they enhanced their learning experiences, according to the findings. However, a key feature in breakout rooms is that educators should take contingent measures to ensure that students participate actively in these sessions. The author argues that the success of breakout rooms lies in the teachers’ ability to give clear instructions about what is expected from the learners. Moreover, breakout rooms should involve follow-up activities done in offline classrooms. The idea is to give maximum exposure to students before they execute tasks. Van Heleyen [37, 38] contend that breakout rooms can be more effective when the teacher assigns group leaders to each room. Read et al. [36] posit that in breakout- rooms, students should be free to change groups and join groups that they feel comfortable working with. In a similar vein, Keskin and Yurdugul [39] have shown how teachers can monitor online learning systems through log data. They posit that one way to monitor learning systems is through the log data, which records learner behaviours in an e-learning system database.

In another study conducted by Sulasmi [40], the effectiveness of modelling strategies to improve student learning outcomes was examined, and results indicated that the success or failure of accomplishing the learning objectives is largely determined by the teacher who creates the learning activities. By designing interesting and challenging activities, Sulasmi [40] contends that the teacher must present the content to be learned in manageable chunks, which can be easily absorbed by the learners. Students, who are at the centre of the learning environment, should be given ample opportunities through multiple activities ranging from role-play, debates, cloze activities, and completion of quizzes, to practice the language so that they get maximum exposure before they complete tasks. Thus, the teacher might demonstrate to the students how to do a task before assigning it by modelling.

Modelling in ESL multilingual and multicultural classrooms draws on theoretical frameworks such as sociocultural theory, cultural responsive pedagogy, constructivism, differentiated instruction, cognitive-interactionist approach, and the Zone of Cultural Proximal Development. These frameworks collectively contribute to an all-inclusive understanding of how modelling can be effectively implemented to support language learning and cultural competence in diverse educational settings. Sociocultural theory places a strong emphasis on how social interactions and cultural background affect cognitive development [41]. In the context of ESL classrooms, this theory supports the idea that modelling language use within meaningful social interactions enhances language learning. The concept of the Zone of Proximal Development is particularly relevant, suggesting that learners benefit from tasks that are just beyond their current level, with the support of a more knowledgeable peer or teacher [41]. By comparing their own work to the modelled example, students can receive quick feedback from the teacher. This feedback loop is essential for spotting mistakes, misunderstandings, or areas in need of development. Students can improve their performance and understanding with the help of this feedback. Moreover, all learning preferences and styles are supported by modelling. While some students learn best through hands-on activities or spoken explanations, others benefit from visual displays. A common practice in scaffolding is to divide difficult tasks into smaller, easier-to-manage phases. By demonstrating each stage, a teacher or more experienced peer can model for students, giving them a structured and unambiguous example to follow. Students’ skills and understanding can be steadily increased by following this step-by-step tutorial. The modelling process serves as a guide for them to observe and imitate the correct procedures.

In this situation, modelling acts as a scaffold to close the achievement gap between what students can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with assistance. Culturally responsive pedagogy recognises and values the cultural background of students. In multilingual and multicultural classrooms, this framework emphasises the importance of integrating students’ cultural experiences into the learning process [42]. When modelling language, teachers should select examples and scenarios that resonate with the diverse cultural backgrounds of their students. This not only makes language learning experiences more meaningful but also fosters a sense of inclusion and cultural identity.

In the South African context, in particular, the Higher Institutions of learning, classrooms are characterised by multidialectal learners. Thus, if teachers have to adopt a multilingual pedagogy, they must be familiar with all the languages spoken by the students. Contrarily, teacher training institutions have not yet adopted multilingual training pedagogies that will cater for teachers who will be capable of addressing all the learners’ different languages. This inquiry was guided by the following research question:-

• How can modelling, as an instructional strategy in multilingual classrooms, be enhanced?

3. Research methodology

3.1 Research paradigm

The interpretivist paradigm posits that a single, objective reality does not exist but instead that our unique viewpoints influence how we understand reality [43]. This indicates that knowledge is created via our relationships with other people rather than being something that can be measured or quantified objectively.

3.2 Research approach

The fundamental assumption of qualitative research is that “reality” is subjective; that is, every individual constructs a distinct, personal interpretation of the world from their own experiences and of those who live in it. This means that a lot of what people, including the researcher, take to be real is actually a compilation of individual observations, conclusions, and points of view [44]. Therefore, this inquiry adopted a qualitative research approach.

When detailed information about individual view and attitudes or thorough investigation into novel issues are under consideration, in-depth interviews are the most applicable qualitative research method due to the systematic nature of the approach in providing answers to “what” and “why” research questions.

3.3 Research design

This investigation used a case study methodology. A well-designed study ensures that the data collected enables the researcher to clearly address the initial question. Determining the type of evidence needed to answer a research question, support a theory, evaluate a programme, or give a precise account of a phenomenon is known as finding germane evidence. Put otherwise, when formulating a research design, we must consider the following: given this research topic, what kind of evidence is required to answer the issue in a way that is persuasive [45].

3.4 Participant selection

Participants for this study were conveniently sampled from an Institution of Higher Learning in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Six English Second Language lecturers were selected due to their exposure to multilingual and multicultural classrooms. The classes taught by these lecturers are multidialectal, consisting of Xhosa, Zulu, Sotho, and Tswana students. Furthermore, the Xhosa-speaking tribes have their own dialects, such as the Mpondo and Bhaca dialects.

3.5 Data collection

To learn more about the participants’ approaches to managing multilingual and multicultural classrooms, in-depth interviews were held with them. The hallmark of an in-depth interview is the interviewer’s attempt to probe under the surface to uncover the respondents’ underlying emotions and feelings or to determine the defence mechanisms and justifications they employ in response to the topics under discussion [46]. Interviews were conducted for three days, with two interviewees each day. Data were analysed thematically by categorising them into similar patterns, which ultimately formulated the findings of this inquiry.

4. Discussion and findings

The focal objective of this inquiry was to investigate how modelling, as an instructional strategy, can be achieved in multilingual and multicultural classrooms. Findings are discussed in relation to the themes that emerged from data analysis, which are scaffolding through explicit vocabulary instruction, contextualised learning and collaborative activities, and using multimedia texts through flipped classrooms.

4.1 Theme 1: scaffolding through explicit vocabulary instruction

The prevailing belief in language instruction nowadays is that the main obstacles to language acquisition are a lack of vocabulary and sentence-level grammatical structure. Saddler [46] states that “of the many difficulties writers encounter when engaged in the act of writing, crafting sentences that accurately convey meaning is particularly challenging.” Tolba [47] argues that academic challenges and poor vocabulary are two of the factors that can be linked to delayed language development. The author claims that “Inefficient vocabularies cause children to fall behind their peers and struggle in acquiring knowledge” ([48], p.2). Rohmatillah [2] observed that one of the most effective ways of learning vocabulary that researchers agree on is explicit vocabulary learning. Ankucic [48] contends that vocabulary knowledge is multifaceted. It involves not only knowing the meaning of a word but also different aspects of knowing a word, such as collocation, register, case register, forms, word association, and semantic structure.

Participants’ responses indicated that students’ limited vocabulary has a negative effect in ESL classrooms. Participant F revealed that learners resort to the use of their home languages because they lack the vocabulary to express themselves in English:

One reason why ESL leaners resort to their primary languages in class is that they do not have enough vocabulary to express themselves in English. When everybody switches to their own language, the class might be chaotic because students have different languages. The best way is to help them expand their English vocabulary (Participant F)

The claim above shows that learners need developed vocabulary to function effectively in class. Vocabulary, according to Rohmatillah [2], is “conceptual knowledge of words that extends beyond dictionary definitions, where pupils draw connections between words while accurately employing the word in various circumstances.” vocabulary includes not only knowing a word’s definition but also understanding how the term fits into the environment or how the word is used in a communicative context [49]. Thus, in-depth vocabulary is acquired through exposure to rich language contexts and explicit vocabulary instruction.

Rohmatillah [2] distinguishes between several aspects that need to be taken into consideration when teaching vocabulary. These include:

• Boundaries between conceptual meanings, that is, knowing the limitations of the word from other words (e.g. cup, mug, and bowl).

• Polysemy refers to differentiating between the various meanings of a word.

• Homonymy: separating between words that have the same form but different meanings (e.g. bank of a river and savings bank) [2]. Furthermore, Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams [50] define homonymy as where two or more word forms are spelt or pronounced the same way but have different meanings. Examples: Lie as in lie down, lie as in falsehood;

• Homophony: Understanding words with the same pronunciation but different spelling and meanings (e.g. rain, reign, and rein) [2]

• Synonymy: distinguishing between the different meanings that a word has (e.g. enormous, huge, big, gigantic, etc.)

• Affective/associative meaning: This refers to the meaning one thinks of when one come into contact with a word, that is, the denotation and connotative meaning of a word. Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams [50] refer to connotative meaning as the meaning of a word that is beyond its conceptual content. For example, the denotative or exact meaning of the word “black” would be the colour black, but the connotative meaning would be beauty, elegance, evil, depending on the context, etc.

• Being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, for example, when can the word be used: formally, informally, slang, or unsuitable; and

• Pronunciation: ability to recognise and reproduce items in speech [2].

Additionally, Pan and Xu [51] state that in teaching vocabulary knowledge, there are other aspects to consider. They assert that vocabulary teaching should be integrated and, thus, include grammar teaching and word formation. These authors encourage teaching of grammar of new vocabulary, for example, whether the word is a noun or a verb. If it is a verb, whether it is a regular or an irregular verb. If it is a noun, is it singular or plural form? They purport that when a learner knows the part of speech the word is, it would be easier to recall the meaning. Additionally, Pan and Xu [51] posit that vocabulary items can be broken down into bits. They state that learners should be taught how these bits are put together. For example, learners should be taught the meanings of prefixes and suffixes. Examples of prefixes include “im-” as in improper; “sub-” as in substandard; “un-” as in ungrateful. They argue that this will assist learners in guessing the meaning of words. However, the teaching of prefixes and suffixes should be contextualised to facilitate comprehension.

Taking into consideration the major role played by vocabulary knowledge in language learning as portrayed by the scholars above, it is appropriate to deduce that vocabulary knowledge cannot be achieved through reading only but through a lot of aspects. In a study conducted by Tahir, et al. [52] in which they used a control group and an experimental group to examine the effects of explicit vocabulary instruction on vocabulary learning in Malaysia. The experimental group outperformed the control group by 89% overall after being exposed to various explicit vocabulary instruction techniques, such as pictorial vocabulary, crossword puzzles, the Frayer model, making meaning, spelling, and vocabulary anchors. This suggests that teaching language explicitly is a more successful method than teaching it implicitly.

There is a direct correlation between reading proficiency and proper spelling, according to research. Less than 4% of the reading instruction practice is devoted to teaching spelling, according to research by Cooke, et al. [53]. Reed [54]) posits that spelling has received less attention as the development of reading and writing skills has received more attention. Good outcomes will come from the simultaneous development of reading, spelling, and writing skills, provided that instructional strategies emphasise the explicit teaching of vocabulary. Learning how to spell helps students learn more words.

Stories are realistic texts which can be used to master explicit vocabulary teaching. The development of spelling skills involves a sound knowledge of morphological and phonological processes and explicit vocabulary instruction. Reed [54] postulates that about 50% of English words are spelt in a grapho-phonemically predictable manner while 34% are anticipated except for one sound in a word. This means that understanding the spelling-sound relationships contributes to the achievement of correct spelling. Morphological processes account for the occurrence of particular prefixes and suffixes while phonological processes account for such processes as doubling and dropping of sounds, resulting in how words are spelt. The extract below from Dlamini’s ([55], p.43) short story, “I’m not talking about That, Now”, provides an example of the use of stories to accentuate explicit vocabulary teaching:

It's all very well comrades to stop people from going to the shops, she fumed. They were fighting the businessman, they said. But as far as she could see, it was only people like herself, poor people in the township, who were starving. The businessmen were eating. So were their families. They were getting fatter and fatter by the day. They had meat and bread and fruit and vegetables and milk for their babies. They put heavily laden plates on their tables……. not just once a day, as most people like herself did in good times, no, but each time they had a meal- several times a day. Oh, no, the businessmen the comrades were fighting were in no danger of dying from starvation. It was not their bowels that had nothing but the howling air in them. And not their children whose ribs one could count.

The extract above can be used to develop learners’ spelling proficiency skills. The reasons for doubling final /t/ sound at the end of “get” and “fat” are morphological. The insertion of the letter “t” before the inflectional morpheme –ing marking grammatical contrast is a doubling rule which applies to all verbs which conform to the Consonant-Vowel-Consonant (CVC) syllable structure. Hence, “getting”, in the extract. Sound instructional practices on these processes account for the occurrence of double consonants before progressive markers. The doubling rule also applies to comparative and superlative markers in adjectives. Monosyllabic adjectives, like “fat” which have a CVC syllable structure, double the last consonant before the suffixes -er and -est are inserted. This is a morphological rule that determines how words are spelt. Learners can formulate their own spelling of words, concentrating on the rule. For example, fatter, bigger, thinner, getting, etc. The doubling rule also applies to two-syllabic words where a stressed vowel sound occurs in the second syllable, resulting in the doubling of the last consonant before the inflectional morpheme -ing- is inserted. For example, the verb “begin” has two syllables, “be-gin”, where stress is on the vowel sound of the second syllable. Then, the last consonant of the second syllable is doubled. This results in the word “beginning” [51].

The dropping rule is illustrated by the word “starvation” in which the silent /e/ sound of the root word “starve” word is finally dropped, and the suffix -ation is inserted when a word is converted into another class. Word finally, the silent /e/ is dropped in such words as “starve” except for words ending in “-ge” as in advantage and courage. During the formation of new words, the silent -e is retained to form “advantageous” and “courageous”. Explicit instruction of these processes enhances vocabulary knowledge and a sound knowledge in spelling which facilitates good writing practices.

4.2 Theme 2: contextualised learning and collaborative activities

Participants’ responses indicated that contextualised learning and collaborative activities contribute to language development. Teaching language in context [24], through modelling, thus, creating opportunities for students to observe and imitate language use within the group, facilitates language development. Peers become models for each other, offering a diverse range of language skills and cultural perspectives. This social aspect of language learning is crucial in a multilingual and cultural classroom, as it allows learners to develop not only language proficiency but also intercultural competence. By engaging in collaborative tasks, students learn to navigate language barriers, negotiate meaning, and appreciate linguistic diversity, preparing them for effective communication in the globalised world:

Institutions of Higher Learning are characterised by multilingual and multicultural classrooms. There is a challenge in meeting all the varied learners’ languages. But when you assign them with discussion activities, they use their own languages to facilitate comprehension. (Participant E)

Contextualised learning and collaborative activities play crucial roles in the modelling process within English as a second language multilingual and multicultural classrooms. Contextualised learning involves presenting language within meaningful and authentic texts, allowing learners to grasp the language in situations they are likely to encounter in real life. In an ESL classroom with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds, contextualised learning helps students connect language skills to their own experiences, making the learning experience more relevant and engaging.

Hubbard [56] explored the integration of technology as a facilitator of modelling in ESL classroom. The use of multimedia, language learning applications, and online resources provide additional support for modelling language use in diverse contexts. Virtual platforms offer interactive simulations that expose students to authentic language scenarios, enhancing comprehension and language skills in culturally diverse settings:

In multilingual and multicultural classrooms it is better to use texts and discuss them with the learners. Texts that we use in ESL classrooms are English texts because all the learners understand English. In texts we use various examples to explain concepts. (Participant B)

However, some participants indicated that a language that caters for all learners in a multilingual and multicultural classroom is English. It was revealed that the learners’ varied linguistic backgrounds might pose challenges in ESL classrooms because of the different meanings assigned to similar words. Thus, during collaborative classrooms, learners are exposed to their peers’ linguistic and cultural knowledge. Therefore, contextualised learning caters for all learners, irrespective of colour, race, class linguistic, and cultural background:

A language that caters for all learners in multilingual and multicultural classrooms is English. Even myself, as the teacher, the learners’ diverse vocabulary sometimes confuses me. I have noticed that different languages use different words to express the same object. (Participant C)

The participants’ response above indicates that multilingual classrooms might pose challenges to learners because various languages might have different meanings for one word; hence, English, as a lingua franca, could eliminate these. Thus, the use of local, and even regional dialects in the classroom might cause communication breakdown. Communication breakdown erupts because of the lexical gap that exists between the students and even the teachers themselves. Therefore, modelling, through various activities could compensate for such deficiencies as learners’ diverse vocabularies. However, exposure to different languages creates tolerance and recognition of other peoples’ cultures. Using English as the primary language of instruction in multilingual classrooms does not create conflict; on the contrary, it fosters multilingual competence [5]. Furthermore, research demonstrates that children whose first language is not English can also succeed academically and linguistically, despite the obvious educational disadvantages these children face [5]. Low English language proficiency is a major challenge that derails efforts aimed at producing communicatively competent learners.

Khreistat [57] contends that researchers have looked into an intriguing method of online breakout rooms for EFL students for collaborative learning. Breakout rooms are a sort of collaborative peer learning where students work synchronously in small groups [58]. These kinds of events are easily arranged with the use of Internet tools like Zoom, Skype, and Google Meet. As a result, in online sessions, EFL teachers can also employ breakout rooms. With the help of these techniques, kids may interact with other students, do meaningful work, and use language productively. During a lesson, students can be split up into small groups or pairs and work on group projects, role-playing, discussions, and spoken language practice. The teacher can also join in on these activities.

4.3 Theme 3: using multimedia texts through flipped classrooms

Using visual aids and multimedia resources can enhance modelling in ESL classroom. Videos, images, and real-life examples provide additional context and support comprehension, especially for students with diverse language backgrounds [59]. Peer modelling involves students observing and learning from their classmates. Group activities and peer collaboration can facilitate language acquisition as students share their language skills and cultural insights, creating a supportive learning environment [60]:

Leaners participate actively when they are divided into small groups to discuss some lessons. Sometimes I give them the lesson prior the class so that they gather facts from other sources. Sometimes I send them You-Tube videos so that they can refer to them and replay them until they get understand them. (Participant G)

The participants’ claim above shows that providing learners with content to be discussed in class through videos can be beneficial as learners can interact with it so that active participation in class can be facilitated. English language instructors and educators recognise this cutting-edge method as one option when creating their lesson plans for the classroom [57]. Furthermore, videos sent to the students’ mobile technologies can be revisited several times until they (students) grasp the learning material. In a flipped classroom, lessons are delivered to students at home via audio or video lectures. Students will then build on that material in class the next day by engaging in activities [26]. These exercises might change based on the lesson’s goals. Because the learning materials are made available on the platform that students love using the most, this will boost learner engagement.

Flipped classrooms have been used in ESL classrooms prior to the outburst of the COVID-19 Pandemic. A study by Sakulprasertsrit [19] investigated the use of the flipped learning approach in English classrooms to improve student engagement and other twenty-first-century skills. It was found that students have the opportunity to apply their knowledge and demonstrate what they have learned through cooperative group projects or individual applications. As a result, after experiencing a flipped classroom, students ought to participate in debates, original projects, or presentations that broaden their understanding of the material and have applications for their daily life.

Participant A also believed that students can perform better in assessments when they are exposed to various activities like role play and debates. Moreover, cloze activities can facilitate comprehension when the students are required to fill in the blank spaces in activities, thus giving them the opportunity to comprehend the task:

In multilingual classrooms, learners understand better when they are involved in various activities like role-play and debates. They perform better in assessment tasks when the task is practiced several times in class like doing cloze activities. (Participant A)

The claim above reveals that ESL educators in multilingual and multicultural classrooms should design various activities that will enhance comprehension of the language so that learners become proficient in the language. Also, cloze activities enable learners to practice language structures by completing blank spaces in texts.

5. Recommendations

Language instruction and learning must meet internationally recognised criteria in order to have credibility on a global scale. This will be achieved through modelling, which has the potential to prepare students for the completion of tasks in the target language. Modelling, which starts with the improvement of reading skills, should be done at all levels of language learning. Exposure to various activities before the teacher conducts assessment is key to greater achievements. Furthermore, students need to be exposed to twenty-first-century skills by engaging them in the modern approaches of language learning and teaching through flipped classrooms, breakout rooms, Google Meet, Google Docs, etc.

6. Conclusion

This chapter investigated how modelling, as instructional strategy in multilingual and multicultural countries, can be fostered for effective learning. Findings indicated that scaffolding, through explicit vocabulary instruction, contextualised and interactive learning, and the use of multimedia texts through flipped classrooms, can be utilised by educators in multilingual and multicultural classrooms. Our world is multilingual. Anybody hoping to thrive in the workplace or in the learning environment in the twenty-first century has to know how to speak and understand English, which is the universal language for trade, education, and employment. Thus, modelling offers opportunities for the grasp of the language since the teacher provides multiple opportunities to practice the language prior to the administration of activities. Language policy appropriately focuses on ways to provide more equitable access to high levels of English language proficiency so that these changes can be inclusive rather than exclusive and open to all socioeconomic groups. Hence, the South African LiEP (1997) recommends the recognition of 11 official languages as languages of instruction in the lower primary grades and English as a language of instruction from the upper primary grades, that is, from grade 4 to the Institutions of Higher Learning. This suggests that while the policy recognises the people’s languages, it also acknowledges that English offers huge opportunities.

However, English alone is insufficient. A well-managed language strategy can guarantee that English can be taught and integrated into society without adversely affecting the indigenous languages, culture, or identity of those learning the language. It is crucial to comprehend English and adopt multilingual education in the twenty-first century. In conclusion, effective modelling in ESL multilingual and multicultural classrooms requires a holistic approach that considers cultural responsiveness, interactive techniques, scaffolding, visual aids, differentiated instruction, technology, and peer collaboration. By incorporating these strategies, in order to meet the varied requirements of their students, educators can design dynamic, inclusive learning environments. It is necessary to have a language education policy that honours the legacy of mother tongue speakers while also preparing young people for a globalised society in which English is the universal language. Modelling has the potential to hasten the development of high-level language proficiency in young people, possibly with other new pedagogical models that avoid the low spoken proficiency outcomes of many ESLs.

Acknowledgments

I am extremely appreciative of Walter Sisulu University’s Research Directorate for supporting researchers by granting them financial assistance to conduct research. Another word of sincere gratefulness is extended to the Almighty God for guiding me through this research journey.