Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
Abstract
Copper metal is a natural element found in soil, water, and rocks. This metal is one of those functional metals that have significantly improved the quality of human life. In the agricultural industry, copper plays an essential role as a primary nutrient required for the optimal growth of living tissues in plants and other organisms. Additionally, it is used to control fungal diseases; copper sulfate, one of the most widely used derivatives of copper metal, is employed for this purpose. Hence, the use of copper in agriculture is crucial. Another advanced and innovative application of copper is in chemical processes within the petrochemical industry as a catalyst. Copper catalysts exhibit a more favorable hydrogenation activity compared to nickel catalysts. The copper catalyst is designed in three forms: extruded and tablet forms for fixed-bed reactions and powder for liquid-bed reactions.
Keywords
- copper catalyst
- copper metal
- copper alloys
- copper applications
- agricultural industry
- electrical industries
- pharmaceutical industries
1. Introduction
Copper metal is a natural element found in soil, water, and rocks. It is regarded as one of the functional metals that have significantly impacted the quality of human life. Historically, copper has been considered among the most essential materials in various industries [1]. Its extensive use in daily life, electronic industries, and industrial machinery underscores the paramount importance of this metal. Furthermore, copper stands out as one of the most widely used heavy nonferrous metals [2, 3]. In terms of appearance, copper compound minerals exhibit vibrant colors, especially red, green, and blue, as depicted in Figure 1 [4].
Figure 1.
Copper ore.
Copper is a metal as old as human history. Copper was among the first metals used for coinage, a practice that started around 8000 BC. The coin depicted at the bottom is a Roman Follis featuring Constantius I (Figure 2) [5].
Figure 2.
Roman Follis.
1.1 Characteristics and applications of copper
Why is copper a popular metal? Due to its exceptional and noteworthy features, copper is used in various industries such as machinery, agriculture, electronics, etc. [6]. Among the most essential features of copper metal, the following can be mentioned: conduction of electricity and heat [7], being a hammerhead, corrosion resistance [8], machining ability, tensile strength [9], alloy property [10], very high malleability, the possibility of recycling copper [11], and an esthetically pleasing color suitable for artistic applications.
The combination of these qualities has rendered copper a sought-after metal for various purposes. Furthermore, Copper, as a very versatile metal, has excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, corrosion resistance, and other desirable properties as a final product in several sectors such as (1) Electronics industries: production, transmission, and distribution of electricity. (2) Construction and architecture: roof and plumbing. (3) Transportation: car wires, connections, and various electrical parts for the construction of ships, planes, and trains. (4) Industrial machinery and equipment: engines, generators, pumps, compressors, and heat exchangers. (5) Renewable energy: It is an essential component in solar panels, wind turbines, and energy storage systems. (6) Plumbing and water systems: plumbing and water supply systems. (7) Coins and currency: production of coins, especially with lower denominations. (8) Medical applications: Medical devices and equipment, including surgical instruments, imaging systems, touch surfaces, and hospital equipment are suitable to help reduce the spread of infection. (9) Consumer goods: cooking utensils, household appliances, jewelry, decorative items, and musical instruments are used. In other words, the direct sale of copper sheets or various forms is a common practice (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Utilization of copper metal.
1.2 Role of copper alloys in industry
Copper metal alloys are crucial, especially brass, bronze, copper, and nickel silver. Approximately 30% of the world’s copper production is dedicated to alloying. Copper alloys are generally worked, with only 10% is produced by casting, approximately 78–80% copper and 20–22% tin mixed together to form bell metal; in smaller proportions, it creates bronze. Additionally, 70–90% copper metal is mixed with 10–30% zinc to form a brass alloy, also 88% copper and 12% zinc used to form Pinchbeck, and other alloys (Figure 4) [10, 12, 13].
Figure 4.
Copper alloys.
1.3 End uses of copper
End uses of copper metal and the use of copper products in various industries are called “end uses.” In order of importance, these industries are electrical and electronic, construction, consumer goods, industrial machinery manufacturing, transportation, and military. Copper is one of the four metals whose natural color is not gray or silver. The most production and extraction of copper belongs to Chile. The sale of copper in Chile, with an exhibition of 7.5 million tons, has taken the largest share of the copper market. Copper ingot producers, foundries, wire-making units, brass products production units, and other sectors use refined copper. The transformation of copper into products such as uncoated wire, cable, coated wire, tape and belt, pipe, rod, and casting products reveals its final applications in our lives (Figure 5) [14].
Figure 5.
Use in electrical industries.
2. Copper’s versatility in daily life and industry
In the previous sections, we learned about the characteristics of copper metal. These features have increased the use of copper in different conditions. For this reason, today, we see the benefit of copper in various industries and daily life.
2.1 Application of copper in electronics and electrical industries
One of the best and most cost-effective conductive metals is copper, known for its efficient electrical conductivity. Additionally, owing to its properties, copper has become one of the safest metals for wires and power transmission tools. The majority of copper is utilized in the electrical and electronic industries, accounting for approximately 46% (Figure 6) [15].
Figure 6.
The use of copper in the electronics industry.
One of the high-tech applications of copper in electrical applications is the use of copper nanoparticles for conductive inks. The potential of low price, low melting temperature, and high conductivity of copper nanoparticles has enabled them to prepare themselves to enter new flexible electronic technologies, such as foldable and wearable electronic devices (Figure 7) [16].
Figure 7.
Copper nanoparticles for conductive inks.
The new technologies, such as solar panels, wind turbines, and energy storage systems for renewable energy production, are experiencing growth due to the escalating consumption of fossil fuels and the resultant increase in pollution. These technologies, including solar, tidal, and wind, necessitate immediate storage solutions. Another high-tech electronic application is supercapacitors, which function as devices capable of rapidly storing and generating electrical energy. CuS/C@PANI nanocomposites are employed as advanced electrode materials for supercapacitor applications. These superconductors are composed prepared of copper nitrate trihydrate (Cu(NO3)2·3H2O, 99.99%), polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP, 99%), and 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid (H3BTC, 95%) Figure 8 [17].
Figure 8.
Synthesis CuS/C@PANI nanocomposites as advanced electrode materials for supercapacitor applications [
2.2 Construction application
Copper metal finds application not only in the façade of buildings but also in all wiring, certain pipes, various door handles, and even in all the electrical appliances inside a house. Interestingly, almost 197 kg of copper is used in each building [18, 19]. One copper compound with unique applications is copper nanoparticles featuring different structures tailored for specific uses. These nanoparticles, produced by biological methods, including copper compounds and plant extracts, can have basic applications in producing paints, ceramics, batteries, fuel cells, etc. Bimetallic nanoparticles are compounds that can have these applications. Chitosan is a biological compound, biodegradable, biocompatible, and nontoxic polymer with antifungal properties, and a special chemical structure has a special application in the production of metal nanostructures, especially copper; due to the OH and NH2 groups, it can create a strong metal bond and create a complex and a strong polymer structure for special applications. It is employed as a stabilizing agent due to its ability to form chemical bonds with metals in the nanoparticle production process (Figure 9) [20].
Figure 9.
Synthesis of bimetallic nanoparticles.
2.3 Transportation industries application
Using copper to construct ships, railways, airplanes, and cars is also widespread in transportation industries. Copper alloys are standard materials in shipbuilding from bolts and rivets to a ship’s propellers and pipes. This metal makes many train parts in the railway industry, including engines, brakes, and control parts. Airplanes require ventilation, hydraulic, navigation, and electrical systems, and copper is essential in the automotive industry for brakes, bearings, engines, radiators, and wiring. A typical vehicle alone can contain 23 kg of copper [21, 22, 23]. Copper oxide brake nanofluid (CBN) is a compound under consideration for car braking, evaluated using the arc submerged nanoparticle synthesis system (ASNSS). Brake fluids containing copper nanoparticles are produced by melting the bulk metal immersed in the dielectric liquid as an electrode. Copper vaporizes in DOT3 brake fluid, rapidly quenches, and results in the formation of nanocrystalline copper powders at the core. The produced CBN, aimed at reducing the occurrence of vapor lock, exhibits a higher boiling point, increased conductivity, and greater viscosity, ensuring the optimal performance of CBN. Considering that the performance of brake oil depends on the three characteristics of higher boiling point, higher viscosity, and stronger conductivity, one of the great advantages of CBN produced can be the increase of 8°C in the boiling point of CBN, which has reached 278°C. Also, an increase of 5 units of viscosity and reaching the viscosity at 35 (mm2/s, cSt) to 37 (mm2/s, cSt) and an increase of 0.05 W/m°C is 0.03 units of conductivity and reaching a conductivity of 0.05 W/m°C [24].
2.4 Pharmaceutical industries application
While copper’s utilization in the pharmaceutical industry may not be as extensive as in other sectors, its significance persists owing to the unique properties of copper metal, notably its antibacterial characteristics. Studies have shown that bacteria, viruses, and yeast find it challenging to survive on a copper surface due to the metal’s interference with the electrical charge on the microbial cell membrane. Among the bacteria and microorganisms in question are E. coli, Legionella pneumophila, cobacillus, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, poliovirus cited. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), a copper surface can eliminate 99.9% of bacteria that land on it within two hours [25, 26, 27]. The utilization of a composite film, demonstrating outstanding bacterial-killing efficiency, as a wound dressing material is one of the applications of copper metal as an antibacterial compound. In this process, copper nanoparticles with oxidative stability are produced using a modified dialdehyde starch (DAS) as an environmentally friendly reducing agent. Additionally, a biocompatible polymer, polyethyleneimine (PEI), serves as a stabilizer in the production of these copper nanoparticles. The potential for various clinical applications has been investigated using the antibacterial properties of agar film embedded with copper nanoparticles against E. coli bacteria, which has shown excellent bacterial killing efficiency and can be used as a wound dressing material (Figure 10) [28].
Figure 10.
Copper nanoparticles antibacterial compound.
Healthy living conditions and international concerns have given rise to new challenges in developing cost-effective antimicrobial materials, focusing on preventing the survival and proliferation of microorganisms, particularly after the attention garnered by the coronavirus pandemic. An emerging field involves the utilization of metal cations in conjunction with azo-Schiff base ligands as highly active antibacterial compounds (Figure 11). Recent studies emphasize the noteworthy antimicrobial and antibacterial properties of copper metal ions on Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli bacteria [29].
Figure 11.
Schematic representation for the synthesis route of azo-Schiff base ligands and their metal (II) complexes. Reprinted with permission from [
2.5 The use of copper in industrial equipment and machinery application
The application of copper in industrial equipment and machinery is widespread across various sectors, including the petrochemical industry. These machines and equipment comprise copper pipes, electric motors, evaporators, condensers, heat exchangers, valves, and containers designed for use in corrosive environments [30, 31].
Investigating the chemical nature of copper oxide (Cu2O) and copper surfaces in the presence of H2O and CO2 at room temperature using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy shows that today the use of copper in rotor and brush electrodes is considered in electric motors. Investigating the surface chemistry of copper surfaces used in electric motors on Cu2O, Cu, and Zn/Cu characters at room temperature, in the presence of CO2 gas, using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy under constant temperature and pressure environmental conditions shows that clean copper can activate CO2 to
Figure 12.
Surface chemistry of Cu in the presence of H2O and CO2 [
Figure 13.
C1s XPS spectra of Cu2O in the presence of 0.1 torr CO2 at room temperature, show that the X-rays and the secondary photoelectrons induce carbonate formation on Cu2O [
2.6 Copper metal in the agricultural application
The application of copper metal in the agricultural industry is crucial as it serves as a primary nutrient necessary for the optimal growth of living tissues in plants and other organisms. Additionally, copper is utilized to control fungal diseases and act as a stimulant for the development of chickens and other poultry. Copper sulfate, derived from copper metal, is one of the extensively used compounds in this context. Hence, the use of copper in agriculture is deemed essential [33, 34, 35, 36, 37].
The goal of safeguarding more sustainable agricultural products has become a priority for farmers. In 2020, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) designated it as an international year focused on protecting plants, promoting economic growth, and enhancing environmental sustainability. The FAO highlighted that over 40% of crops are lost annually due to pests. One historical copper-containing pesticide utilized for this purpose since 1885 is the Bordeaux mixture [38, 39]. It has been employed concurrently with pesticides, and subsequently, numerous pesticides incorporate copper compounds. The antibacterial activity of copper is grounded in two primary mechanisms. In the first mechanism, Cu2+ is generated and delivered [40]. In the second method, with the presence of copper nanoparticles, ROS production method that is reactive oxygen species proceeds [41]. Due to the decreased accumulation of metal in the soil, reduced harm to microbiota, and lower toxicity to plants, food, and underground water, the amount of copper in European pesticides has been reduced from 6 kg per hectare to 4 kg per hectare today [42]. Therefore, it is crucial to develop new pesticide compounds with low copper content and the most significant reduction of antimicrobial activity. Recent research indicates that lignin, an abundant, biodegradable, and natural biopolymer, can be used in conjunction with copper nanoparticles [43]. Incorporating lignin as polyphenols, which are antimicrobial compounds, can diminish the reliance on copper in the structure, while still imparting valuable properties, various phenolic monomer fragments are found in lignin, making it a valuable reservoir of natural antibacterial agents. The strongest inhibitory effect is generally observed in phenolic moieties with a double bond at the α and β positions of the side chain and a methyl group at the γ position Figure 14 [45]. Antimicrobial properties have been successfully demonstrated in lignin derived from different sources, using different extraction methods, and even in a wide range of lignin model compounds against different microorganisms [46, 47, 48]. The antimicrobial effect of polyphenolic compounds of lignin is attributed to the damage and lysis of the bacterial cell membrane, which leads to the subsequent release of the cell contents [45, 49]. Nanoparticles show more useful polyphenolic side chains on their surface due to their wide surface area. This extended contact area has the potential to increase the antimicrobial effect [44]. An innovative organic-inorganic combination of lignin and brocanthite Cu4(OH)6SO4 has garnered significant attention (Figure 15). In conclusion, the antimicrobial activity of the lignin@Cu compound and the correlation between the dimensions/shape of the brochantite crystals were investigated on the tomato plant through
Figure 14.
Structure lignin as polyphenols [
Figure 15.
Two synthetic pathways followed to obtain the hybrid material lignin@Cu: (a) wet procedure, and (b) mechanochemistry [
The use of metal ions in CuO, CuS, and Cu(OH)2 compounds for antifungal properties is common in commercial applications. However, recent restrictions have emerged due to concerns about their accumulation in farm soil and water resource contamination, limiting their use. It is crucial to employ nanomaterials for controlling the release of copper metal [51]. A valuable method involves using phosphate compounds to regulate the release of metal ions and reduce fungal and bacterial infections. The compound Cu3(PO4)2·3H2O, synthesized through the polyol method and presented by White and colleagues, has yielded valuable results in watermelon field applications to enhance resistance to fungi. A concentration of 10 mg L−1 nanosheet Cu3(PO4)2·3H2O exhibited a 58% reduction in the development of fungal diseases (Figure 16) [52].
Figure 16.
Use of copper metal ions in watermelon field [
2.7 Copper catalyst applications
Due to their high potential applications, certain metals, including copper, are promising alternatives to expensive metals as catalysts in chemical processes. The natural abundance and low manufacturing cost of copper nanoparticles have positioned it as a valuable compound in synthesis [53]. Practical methods for synthesizing copper nanoparticles include sonochemical, hydrothermal, sol-gel, electrochemical, and thermal evaporation techniques. However, these methods often involve the use of regenerating chemical compounds, such as NaBH4, or may require other substances, such as ethylene glycol and polyvinyl pyrrolidone, which can pose environmental risks [54]. Currently, the adoption of green synthesis methods for the production of metal nanoparticles is gaining prominence. Biological green synthesis, a well-established approach, utilizes natural biological resources, microorganisms, and plants. The stability of metal nanoparticles synthesized through biological methods is attributed to the presence of compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and polyphenols. Compounds from the Rutaceae family, such as Muraya Koenigii (Curry leaf) or Daun Kari in Malay, are particularly prevalent in the biological synthesis of metal nanoparticles. Among the advantages of biological methods for the synthesis of copper nanoparticles, they offer mild reaction conditions, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective processes. These methods ensure biocompatibility and enable diverse applications in medicine while also providing control over the size and shape of the nanoparticles. The use of extracts or natural microorganisms reduces the environmental impact and energy consumption, making it a sustainable and efficient approach [55, 56]. Mustaffa Shamsuddin presented a valuable method using the aqueous extract of Murayya koenigii leaves as a reducing agent for producing CuO nanoparticles. He has used these nanoparticles as a catalyst in reducing 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol (Figure 17) [57].
Figure 17.
Synthesis of copper nanoparticles as a catalyst for the reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol [
The development of green, efficient, solvent-free, and safe catalysts using one-pot methods for synthesizing heterocyclic compounds is a current focus. One of the green synthesis methods for heterocyclic compounds involves employing multicomponent reaction (MCR) [58]. This method holds significance in modern research for synthesizing heterocycles. It involves a technique where three or four starting materials combine to form a complex molecule through a one-pot reaction [59]. There are numerous methods for preparing heteroatoms containing (N and S) groups, such as pyrazole and thiadiazole [60]. However, the use and development of new catalytic methods with the design of nanocatalysts and features such as selectivity, biocompatibility, and reusability can be used as green industrial methods in preparing organic compounds [61]. One of the green synthesis methods for organic compounds involves the use of copper metal nanocatalysts [62]. Sharaf Zeebaree and his colleagues have explored the utilization of Trifolium resupinate leaf extract as a reducing agent for synthesizing copper nanoparticles, serving as catalysts in C∙C and C-heteroatom bond formations. They have successfully synthesized a valuable heterocyclic compound known as 1,3,4-thiadiazole using the MCR method and the developed nanocatalyst. The synthesis method is illustrated in Figure 18 [63].
Figure 18.
(A) Synthesize copper nanoparticles and (B) synthesis of 1,3,4-thiadiazole [
A long-standing goal in polymer chemistry is the design of new macromolecules and achieving high molecular weight control using radical polymerization methods.
In 1990, reversible deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) techniques were first realized, as depicted in Figure 19. This figure illustrates the mechanism of atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), a type of RDRP reaction, with potential side reactions and equilibria in aqueous media. Generally, this method operates through a dynamic equilibrium between a dormant species and an actively propagating species. The conversion between inactive and active states occurs rapidly, with only a small fraction of chains being active and growing at any given moment. Consequently, the average molecular weight is influenced by the ratio between the initiator and monomer, ensuring that each polymer chain grows with the same molecular weight distribution [65].
Figure 19.
Mechanism of ATRP, one of the RDRP reactions, with potential side reactions and equilibria in aqueous media: blue represents the hydrolysis of alkyl halide chain end, red depicts radical-radical termination reactions, orange illustrates the disproportionation of Cu(I), and green signifies the dissociation of halogens. Reprinted with permission from reference [
The use of water as a reaction medium has transformed this process into a green one. The control and stability of vinyl monomer polymerization are other valuable features of the processes. New protocols for RDRP processes were introduced by Haddleton et al. in 2013, in which Cu(0) is produced in aqueous media by an
Figure 20.
Synthesis of multi-block copolymers composed of NiPAm, DMA, and HEAm by iterative Cu(0)-RDRP in H2O, permission from reference [
One of the newest applications of copper involves its use in chemical processes in petrochemicals as a catalyst. Copper catalysts exhibit more favorable hydrogenation activity compared to nickel catalysts. The copper catalyst is designed in three forms: extruded and tablet for fixed-bed reactions and powder for liquid-bed reactions. A crucial chemical transformation in the industry, representing one of the applications of gas-phase purification in the flow of olefins for polymerization, is the semi-hydrogenation of alkyne to alkene [68, 69]. The synthesis of metal nanoparticles with high-added value is widely utilized in the industry. In 2022, Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh et al. conducted a green process to synthesize nanoparticles of palladium and copper. It has had an exciting performance in the hydrogenation process. PdCu nanoparticles are synthesized through three steps, including I- synthesis of polylactide as a biodegradable and widely used polymer II- binding of polylactide to metal and formation of metal stereocomplexes based on polylactide III- reduction of metal using hydrogen (Figure 21) [70].
Figure 21.
Syntheses of the nanoparticles catalysts PdCu, Pd, and Cu [
One of the applications of these nanoparticles is the partial hydrogenation of 2-butene-1,4-diol and 3-hexyn-1-ol as an industrially important alkynol, which led to cis-alkenol with high selectivity (98%) (Figure 22).
Figure 22.
Hydrogenation by Cu nanoparticles catalyst [
3. Conclusion
This chapter emphasizes the significance of utilizing copper as a versatile metal applicable in pharmaceutical, electronic, chemical, industrial, and agricultural domains. The use of nanoparticles represents a scientific revolution in the twenty-first century, with copper nanoparticles playing a pivotal role in various industries. These nanoparticles serve as fundamental elements in fields such as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, electronics, and industry, functioning as catalysts. Consequently, the green synthesis methods outlined in this chapter hold particular importance. The green synthesis of copper nanoparticles has garnered attention from scientists and researchers as an advanced technology.
References
- 1.
Baker DE, Amacher MC. Nickel, copper, zinc, and cadmium. In: Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 2 Chemical and Microbiological Properties. American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Soil Science Society of America, Inc.; 1983. pp. 323-336. DOI: 10.2134/agronmonogr9.2.2ed.c19 - 2.
Boulamanti A, Moya JA. Production costs of the non-ferrous metals in the EU and other countries: Copper and zinc. Resources Policy. 2016; 49 :112-118. DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.04.011 - 3.
Darling A. Non-ferrous metals. In: An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology. Google Book; 2002. pp. 47-145 - 4.
Behar O, Peña R, Kouro S, Kracht W, Fuentealba E, Moran L, et al. The use of solar energy in the copper mining processes: A comprehensive review. Cleaner Engineering and Technology. 2021; 4 :100259. DOI: 10.1016/j.clet.2021.100259 - 5.
Johanson P. Copper. The Rosen Publishing Group. Inc. Google Book; 2006 - 6.
Bhagat M, Anand R, Sharma P, Rajput P, Sharma N, Singh K. Multifunctional copper nanoparticles: Synthesis and applications. ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology. 2021; 10 :063011. DOI: 10.1149/2162-8777/ac07f8 - 7.
Liu H, Shi X, Xu F, Zhang L, Zhang W, Chen L, et al. Copper ion liquid-like thermoelectrics. Nature Materials. 2012; 11 :422-425. DOI: 10.1038/nmat3273 - 8.
Brusic V, Frisch M, Eldridge B, Novak F, Kaufman F, Rush B, et al. Copper corrosion with and without inhibitors. Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 1991; 138 :2253. DOI: 10.1149/1.2085957 - 9.
Merz M, Dahlgren S. Tensile strength and work hardening of ultrafine-grained high-purity copper. Journal of Applied Physics. 1975; 46 :3235-3237. DOI: 10.1063/1.322048 - 10.
Davis JR. Copper and Copper Alloys. ASM International. Google Book; 2001 - 11.
Samuelsson C, Björkman B. Copper recycling. In: Handbook of Recycling. New York: State-of-the-art for Practitioners, Analysts, and Scientists; 2014. pp. 85-94. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-396459-5.00007-6 - 12.
Won C-S, Jung JP, Won K-S, Sharma A. Technological insights into the evolution of bronze bell metal casting on the Korean Peninsula. Metals. 2022; 12 :1776. DOI: 10.3390/met12111776 - 13.
Enguita O, Climent-Font A, Garcıa G, Montero I, Fedi M, Chiari M, et al. Characterization of metal threads using differential PIXE analysis. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B. 2002; 189 :328-333. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-583X(01)01081-3 - 14.
Reolon LW, Henning Laurindo CA, Torres RD, Amorim FL. WEDM performance and surface integrity of Inconel alloy IN718 with coated and uncoated wires. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 2019; 100 :1981-1991. DOI: 10.1007/s00170-018-2828-6 - 15.
Leisner P, Möller P, Fredenberg M, Belov I. Recent progress in pulse reversal plating of copper for electronics applications. Transactions of the IMF. 2007; 85 :40-45. DOI: 10.1179/174591907X161973 - 16.
Cheng C, Li J, Shi T, Yu X, Fan J, Liao G, et al. A novel method of synthesizing antioxidative copper nanoparticles for high performance conductive ink. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics. 2017; 28 :13556-13564. DOI: 10.1007/s10854-017-7195-9 - 17.
Liu Q , Zhang S, Xu Y. Two-step synthesis of CuS/C@ PANI nanocomposite as advanced electrode materials for supercapacitor applications. Nanomaterials. 2020; 10 :1034. DOI: 10.3390/nano10061034 - 18.
Shah KW, Lu Y. Morphology, large scale synthesis and building applications of copper nanomaterials. Construction and Building Materials. 2018; 180 :544-578. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.159 - 19.
Madheswaran C, Ambily P, Dattatreya J, Rajamane N. Studies on use of copper slag as replacement material for river sand in building constructions. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series A. 2014; 95 :169-177. DOI: 10.1007/s40030-014-0084-9 - 20.
Din MI, Rehan R. Synthesis, characterization, and applications of copper nanoparticles. Analytical Letters. 2017; 50 :50-62. DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2016.1172081 - 21.
Lavanya C, Rao AS, Kumar ND. A review on utilization of copper slag in geotechnical applications. In: Indian Geotechnical Conference. Kochi. Paper No.H-212. December; 2011, India. pp. 445-448 - 22.
Crowson P. The copper industry 1945-1975. Resources Policy. 2007; 32 :1-18. DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2007.03.004 - 23.
Lamblin G, Duhain A, Lenoble D. Copper-carbon nanotubes composite materials for lightning strike protections in airplanes. ECS Meeting Abstracts . 2021;7 :1891-1891. DOI: 10.1149/MA2021-0271891mtgabs - 24.
Kao M, Lo C, Tsung T, Wu Y, Jwo C, Lin H. Copper-oxide brake nanofluid manufactured using arc-submerged nanoparticle synthesis system. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2007; 434 :672-674. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2006.08.305 - 25.
Konieczny J, Rdzawski Z. Antibacterial properties of copper and its alloys. Archives of Materials Science and Engineering. 2012; 56 :53-60 - 26.
Edis Z, Haj Bloukh S, Ashames A, Ibrahim M. Copper-based nanoparticles, their chemistry and antibacterial properties: A review. Chemistry for a Clean and Healthy Planet. 2019; 1 :401-428. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-20283-5_24 - 27.
Zhang E, Li F, Wang H, Liu J, Wang C, Li M, et al. A new antibacterial titanium–copper sintered alloy: Preparation and antibacterial property. Materials Science and Engineering: C. 2013; 33 :4280-4287. DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2013.06.016 - 28.
Tang L, Zhu L, Tang F, Yao C, Wang J, Li L. Mild synthesis of copper nanoparticles with enhanced oxidative stability and their application in antibacterial films. Langmuir. 2018; 34 :14570-14576. DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b02470 - 29.
Kasare MS, Dhavan PP, Jadhav BL, Pawar SD. Synthesis of Azo Schiff Base ligands and their Ni (II), Cu (II) and Zn (II) metal complexes as highly-active antibacterial agents. ChemistrySelect. 2019; 4 :10792-10797. DOI: 10.1002/slct.201901605 - 30.
MacMahon AD. Copper: A Materials Survey. US Department of the Interior. Bureau of Mines. Google Book; 1965 - 31.
Foote KG. Optimizing copper spheres for precision calibration of hydroacoustic equipment. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 1982; 71 :742-747. DOI: 10.1121/1.387497 - 32.
Deng X, Verdaguer A, Herranz T, Weis C, Bluhm H, Salmeron M. Surface chemistry of Cu in the presence of CO2 and H2O. Langmuir. 2008; 24 :9474-9478. DOI: 10.1021/la8011052 - 33.
Borkow G, Gabbay J. Copper, an ancient remedy returning to fight microbial, fungal and viral infections. Current Chemical Biology. 2009; 3 :272-278. DOI: 10.2174/187231309789054887 - 34.
Kumar V, Pandita S, Sidhu GPS, Sharma A, Khanna K, Kaur P, et al. Copper bioavailability, uptake, toxicity and tolerance in plants: A comprehensive review. Chemosphere. 2021; 262 :127810. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127810 - 35.
Lamichhane JR, Osdaghi E, Behlau F, Köhl J, Jones JB, Aubertot J-N. Thirteen decades of antimicrobial copper compounds applied in agriculture. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 2018; 38 :1-18. DOI: 10.1007/s13593-018-0503-9 - 36.
Salam D, El-Fadel M. Mobility and availability of copper in agricultural soils irrigated from water treated with copper sulfate algaecide. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 2008; 195 :3-13. DOI: 10.1007/s11270-008-9722-z - 37.
Richardson HW. Handbook of Copper Compounds and Applications. CRC Press. Google book; 1997 - 38.
FAO. The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving Forward on Food Loss and Waste Reduction. Vol. 3. Rome: FAO; 2019. pp. 2-13 - 39.
Johnson GF. The early history of copper fungicides. Agricultural History. JSTOR. 1935; 9 (2):67-79 - 40.
Warnes S, Caves V, Keevil C. Mechanism of copper surface toxicity in Escherichia coli O157: H7 and salmonella involves immediate membrane depolarization followed by slower rate of DNA destruction which differs from that observed for gram-positive bacteria. Environmental Microbiology. 2012; 14 :1730-1743. DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2011.02677.x - 41.
Slavin YN, Asnis J, Hńfeli UO, Bach H. Metal nanoparticles: Understanding the mechanisms behind antibacterial activity. Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 2017; 15 :1-20. DOI: 10.1186/s12951-017-0308-z - 42.
Authority EFS, Arena M, Auteri D, Barmaz S, Bellisai G, Brancato A, et al. Peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance copper compounds copper (I), copper (II) variants namely copper hydroxide, copper oxychloride, tribasic copper sulfate, copper (I) oxide, Bordeaux mixture. EFSA Journal. 2018; 16 :e05152. DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5152 - 43.
Hatakka A. Biodegradation of lignin. In: Hofrichter M, Steinbuchel A, editors. Biopolymers. Lignin, Humic Substances and Coal. Vol. 1. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2005. pp. 129-180. DOI: 10.1002/3527600035.bpol1005 - 44.
Beisl S, Friedl A, Miltner A. Lignin from micro-to nanosize: applications. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2017; 18 :2367. DOI:10.3390/ijms18112367 - 45.
Cazacu G, Capraru M, Popa V. Advances in natural polymers. In: Thomas S, Visakh PM, Mathew AP, editors. Advanced Structured Materials.Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: Springer; 2013 - 46.
Nada A, El-Diwany A, Elshafei A. Infrared and antimicrobial studies on different lignins. Acta Biotechnologica. 1989; 9 (3):295-298. DOI: 10.1002/abio.370090322 - 47.
Zemek J, Košíková B, Augustin J, Joniak D. Antibiotic properties of lignin components. Folia Microbiologica. 1979; 24 :483-486. DOI: 10.1007/BF02927180 - 48.
Sláviková E, Košíková B. Inhibitory effect of lignin by-products of pulping on yeast growth. Folia Microbiologica. 1994; 39 :241-243. DOI: 10.1007/BF02814656 - 49.
Telysheva G, Dizhbite T, Lebedeva G, Nikoleava V. Lignin products for decontamination of environment objects from pathogenic microorganisms and pollutants. In: Proceedings of the 7th ILI Forum, Barcelona, Spain. 2005 - 50.
Gazzurelli C, Migliori A, Mazzeo PP, Carcelli M, Pietarinen S, Leonardi G, et al. Making agriculture more sustainable: An environmentally friendly approach to the synthesis of lignin@ Cu pesticides. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2020; 8 :14886-14895. DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c04645 - 51.
Huang Y, Zhao L, Keller AA. Interactions, transformations, and bioavailability of nano-copper exposed to root exudates. Environmental Science & Technology. 2017; 51 :9774-9783. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02523 - 52.
Borgatta J, Ma C, Hudson-Smith N, Elmer W, Plaza Perez CD, De La Torre-Roche R, et al. Copper based nanomaterials suppress root fungal disease in watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus ): Role of particle morphology, composition and dissolution behavior. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 2018;6 :14847-14856. DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b03379 - 53.
Gawande MB, Goswami A, Felpin F-X, Asefa T, Huang X, Silva R, et al. Cu and Cu-based nanoparticles: Synthesis and applications in catalysis. Chemical Reviews. 2016; 11 :63722-63811. DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00482 - 54.
Tran TH, Nguyen VT. Copper oxide nanomaterials prepared by solution methods, some properties, and potential applications: A brief review. International Scholarly Research Notices. 2014; 2014 :56592. DOI: 10.1155/2014/856592 - 55.
Hasan M, Ullah I, Zulfiqar H, Naeem K, Iqbal A, Gul H, et al. Biological entities as chemical reactors for synthesis of nanomaterials: Progress, challenges and future perspective. Materials Today Chemistry. 2018; 8 :13-28. DOI: 10.1016/j.mtchem.2018.02.003 - 56.
Jain M, Gilhotra R, Singh RP, Mittal J. Curry leaf ( Murraya koenigii ): A spice with medicinal property. MOJ Biology and Medicine. 2017;2 :236-256 - 57.
Nordin NR, Shamsuddin M. Biosynthesis of copper (II) oxide nanoparticles using Murayya koeniggi aqueous leaf extract and its catalytic activity in 4-nitrophenol reduction. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. 2019; 15 :218-224. DOI: 10.11113/mjfas.v15n2.1390 - 58.
Bansal R, Soni PK, Ahirwar MK, Halve AK. One-pot multi-component synthesis of some pharmacologically significant 2, 4, 5-tri and 1, 2, 4, 5-Tetrasubstituted Imidazoles: A review. International Research Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2016; 11 :1-26. DOI: 10.9734/IRJPAC/2016/24493 - 59.
Brauch S, van Berkel SS, Westermann B. Higher-order multicomponent reactions: Beyond four reactants. Chemical Society Reviews. 2013; 42 :4948-4962. DOI: 10.1039/C3CS35505E - 60.
Kumar KA, Jayaroopa P. Pyrazoles: Synthetic strategies and their pharmaceutical applications-an overview. International Journal of PharmTech Research. 2013; 5 :1473-1486 - 61.
Safaei-Ghomi J, Ghasemzadeh MA. An efficient multi-component synthesis of 14-aryl-14H-dibenzo [a, j] xanthene derivatives by AgI nanoparticles. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society. 2015; 19 :642-649. DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2012.05.007 - 62.
Inamdar SM, More VK, Mandal SK. CuO nano-particles supported on silica, a new catalyst for facile synthesis of benzimidazoles, benzothiazoles and benzoxazoles. Tetrahedron Letters. 2013; 54 :579-583. DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2012.11.091 - 63.
Zeebaree SYS, Zeebaree AYS. Synthesis of copper nanoparticles as oxidising catalysts for multi-component reactions for synthesis of 1, 3, 4-thiadiazole derivatives at ambient temperature. Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy. 2019; 13 :100155. DOI: 10.1016/j.scp.2019.100155 - 64.
Alsubaie F, Anastasaki A, Wilson P, Haddleton DM. Sequence-controlled multi-block copolymerization of acrylamides via aqueous SET-LRP at 0 C. Polymer Chemistry. 2015; 6 :406-417. DOI: 10.1039/C4PY01066C - 65.
Hailes HC. Reaction solvent selection: The potential of water as a solvent for organic transformations. Organic Process Research and Development. 2007; 11 :114-120. DOI: 10.1021/op060157x - 66.
Zhang Q , Wilson P, Li Z, McHale R, Godfrey J, Anastasaki A, et al. Aqueous copper-mediated living polymerization: Exploiting rapid disproportionation of CuBr with Me6TREN. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 2013; 135 :7355-7363. DOI: 10.1021/ja4026402 - 67.
Jones GR, Anastasaki A, Whitfield R, Engelis N, Liarou E, Haddleton DM. Copper-mediated reversible deactivation radical polymerization in aqueous media. Angewandte Chemie, International Edition. 2018; 57 :10468-10482. DOI: 10.1002/anie.201802091 - 68.
Borodziński A, Bond GC. Selective hydrogenation of ethyne in ethene-rich streams on palladium catalysts. Part 1. Effect of changes to the catalyst during reaction. Catalysis Reviews. 2006; 48 :91-144. DOI: 10.1080/01614940500364909 - 69.
Eggersdorfer M, Laudert D, Létinois U, McClymont T, Medlock J, Netscher T, et al. Einhundert Jahre Vitamine–eine naturwissenschaftliche Erfolgsgeschichte. Angewandte Chemie. 2012; 124 :13134-13165. DOI: 10.1002/ange.201205886 - 70.
Oberhauser W, Frediani M, Mohammadi Dehcheshmeh I, Evangelisti C, Poggini L, Capozzoli L, et al. Selective alkyne semi-hydrogenation by PdCu nanoparticles immobilized on Stereocomplexed poly (lactic acid). ChemCatChem. 2022; 14 :e202101910. DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202101910