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The scarcity of clean water is the root cause of the global sustainability problem. It impacts billions of people and poses serious threats to the survival of all life forms. Membrane desalination produces fresh water from saline ones. The energy efficiency and water production are impacted by the membrane’s low water permeability. Sophisticated wastewater treatment technologies remove hazardous wastes and pollutants from water. Removing pollutants improves the chances for having access to clean and sustainable water. Polymer membrane technologies are paramount in conquering obstacles. In polymer membrane technology, polymer matrix-based nanocomposite membranes are among the most widely used due to their convenience. Environmentally friendly, economical, energy-efficient, operationally flexible, and practical are the main characteristics of these membranes and their constituent parts. To treat wastewater and remediate the environment, this review focuses on polymer and nanocomposite membranes. Additionally, stability, antibacterial qualities, and adsorption processes—all benefits of nanocomposite membranes have been explored. The objective of this review was to provide an overview of the use of polymer matrix-based nanocomposite membrane technology for the remediation of hazardous contaminants from water and wastewater/effluent, as well as to identify its limitations and future potential. Additionally, desalination is one industrial application for nanocomposite membranes.
Department of Maritime Transportation Management Engineering, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
Andrzej Kloczkowski*
The Steve and Cindy Rasmussen Institute for Genomic Medicine at Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
*Address all correspondence to: sharafma@gmail.com and andrzej.kloczkowski@nationwidechildrens.org
1. Introduction
Synthetic or natural polymers can be used to create polymeric membranes, which are being utilized in a wide variety of applications due to their capacity to function as a selective barrier and regulate the passage of impurities found in water [1, 2]. The rate of separation is influenced by the chemical structure, porousness, and the polymers’ physical and chemical properties [3]. Since polymers are not efficacious at transmitting liquids, barrier performance is enhanced by adding nanofillers to the polymer matrix. Polyamide, polysulphone (Psf), and other polymer materials have been used to build polymeric nanocomposite membranes thus far, cellulose acetate/cellulose triacetate (CA/CTA), etc. [4].
Although it is necessary for life and energy production, many people worldwide lack access to clean drinking water [5]. All living things depend on clean, drinkable water to survive, and contemporary human civilization on land has been greatly aided by this resource [6]. The country’s population is growing at a rapid rate, and industrial activity has also boosted water use and utilization. Due to these developments, there is currently a serious water problem worldwide, especially in desert regions [7]. In recent times, the primary concern impacting civilized societies worldwide has been the scarcity of water and the increasing need for it [8]. Around 1.2 billion humans worldwide reside in physical deficiency zones, according to UN data. Economic water scarcity affects over 2 billion people, while the remaining half a billion people are approaching this stage [9].
Apart from treating wastewater and reusing it, desalination appears to be a commonly utilized method globally [10]. One cannot survive without access to clean, safe water. Unfortunately, by international standards, over 1% of the overall water volume is safe and clean [11]. Because of their poisonous effects and inability to biodegrade, metals are thought to be the most hazardous chemicals for ecosystems and species. To eliminate these contaminants from water and wastewater, various polymer membrane developments have been used recently [12].
Over the past 10 years, numerous methods for treating water and wastewater, such as reverse osmosis (RO), forward osmosis (FO), and nanofiltration (NF) have been developed and applied effectively [13]. With certitude, remediation is evolving farther in a brief amount of time will increasingly rely on polymer membrane technology [14].
Polymeric membranes can be created using polymers of synthetic or natural origin which are being utilized in a wide variety of applications due to their capacity to function as a selective barrier and regulate the passage of impurities found in water [15]. The rate of separation is influenced by the chemical structure, porousness, and the polymers’ physical and chemical properties. Since polymers are not efficacious at transmitting liquids, barrier performance is enhanced by adding nanofillers to the polymer matrix [16]. Polyamide, polysulphone (Psf), and other polymer materials have been used to build polymeric nanocomposite membranes thus far, cellulose acetate/cellulose triacetate (CA/CTA), etc. [4, 17].
Recent scientific and technological advancements in nanocomposite membranes for the removal of toxic metals from water and for the desalination process are discussed in this article. This short overview focuses on the following topics: polymeric materials for membranes, incorporation of nanomaterials into the polymer matrix, and production procedures. A quick glimpse of the uses for desalination and removal of contaminant heavy metals from water is also provided.
A schematic of the materials needed to prepare the nanocomposite membrane is shown in Figure 1 [18]. A new era has already been ushered in by nanotechnology in the treatment and remediation of water and wastewater. When nano-sized materials, such as nanoparticles and nanofibers, are introduced during the process of casting to nanocomposite polymeric membranes, it gives the membranes unique properties. To remove contaminants from water and wastewater, it is imperative to develop a functional, low-energy, and less-priced nanocomposite membrane [18]. The challenges of water and effluent treatment have been greatly improved by the introduction of nanoparticles into polymer matrices [19].
Figure 1.
A schematic diagram of nanocomposite (membrane) materials [18]. Copyright Elsevier, 2023.
Recently, polymer matrices for remediation of polluted water have included structures of nano-sized scale, such as graphene-based materials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), oxides of iron, zeolites, silica, zinc, and other oxide of metal materials [20]. Different nanostructures support the effectiveness of the nanocomposite membranes, which have been used successfully in a variety of applications, including separations of gas-gas, liquid-solid, and liquid-liquid.
Nanoscale spherical entities such as nanofibers, nanoplatelets, and nano polymers can be enlarged at the material’s surface to create functional nanostructures for use in a variety of disciplines.
Many nanoparticles obtained in this way are utilized for water treatment since they are affordable, environmentally friendly, and high-quality product [21]. Classic examples of pressure-driven effluent filtration/remediation nanocomposite membranes are shown in Figure 2 [18].
Figure 2.
A diagrammatic representation of a pressure-driven nanocomposite membrane for water-effluent treatment [18]. Copyright Elsevier, 2023.
3. Nanomaterials used to produce nanocomposite membranes
In the field of nanotechnology, progress has been significant in creating nanocomposite thin-film polymeric membranes (TFNCMs) for use in wastewater remediation, desalination, chemical engineering, and the production of drinking water [22]. Improvements in the performance of membranes occur through befouling and clogging prevention, compacting, and chemical decomposition, various nanomaterials have been used in the production of polymeric membranes [23]. To produce TFNCMs, both nanoscale particles and polymeric materials are used to provide improved permeation, selectiveness, mechanical durability, catalytic efficiency, surface characteristics, resistance to chlorine, and mechanical, chemical, and physical in-use stabilities [24].
3.1 Nanocomposite of carbon nanostructures
3.1.1 Nanotubes of carbon
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are composed of sheets of carbon atoms and take a hollow, cylindrical shape, they are utilized in bio- and electronic devices applications [25]. One can distinguish between single-walled (SWCNTs) and multi-walled (MWCNTs) carbon nanotubes (CNTs), based on the number of cylindrical concentric tubes [26]. They possess superior mechanical resistance, good electrical conductance, and bactericidal effects [27]. Vertically stacked CNTs could be employed for water remediation and desalination applications [28]. Because CNTs are smooth-walled and hydrophobic, water can transmit through the channels nearly steadily [29]. Functionalization of the Chanels’ tips and the size of pores substantially influence water permeation and rejection of salt [30]. Solute rejection is affected by the reduction in the pore sizes and increase charges at the tips, but at the expense of diminished water permeation [31]. Furthermore, the CNTs have been identified as having conductive and bactericidal action [32]. CNTs could create a bactericidal nanocomposite membrane for controlling antifouling activity [33].
3.1.2 Graphene and oxide of graphene
Graphene is an allotrope of carbon nanoparticles with a honeycomb-like arrangement of sp2 carbon atoms [34]. The sheet-like orientation of the material results in sorption for the analytes, giving it a specific ultrahigh surface area. In Figure 3, graphite and graphene-based structures are displayed [35].
Figure 3.
Graphite and graphene-based structures [35]. Copyright Elsevier, 2022.
GO has been suggested recently as a potential blend of the remarkable properties of graphene-based materials [36]. As regards polymer processability, GO ranks among the top of graphene-based materials for membrane development. With its greater hydrophilicity, better antifouling properties, and outstanding water flux, GO is widely used as an addition on the surface of membrane [37]. Thin-film GO-based membranes were generated [38]. To increase the efficiency, cross-linking sheets of GO for the sake of adjusting the spacing of their inter-layer. The cross-linked GO membrane yielded a 98.7% dependable water flux and has the potential to lower the internal concentration polarization (ICP) in membrane studies. Numerous scholars have noted that improving the substrate surface and active layer structure is necessary to create highly effective membranes [39]. Besides, creating hybrid composite membranes is thought to be a way to have lower ICP, less fouling, more permeability, and higher salt rejection [40].
GO boasts the ability to absorb heavy metals due to its greater active surface area and functionalized groups that provide both durability and antifoulant attributes within the membrane [41]. By using different proportions of GO and a pore-forming agent, for instance, polyethylene glycol, a revolutionary thin-film nanocomposite membrane of Psf was generated. The membranes thus produced demonstrated higher permeation of water, amphiphilicity, porousness, salt rejection, reduced ICP, and higher flow of water [42].
To produce membranes having lower ICP, less fouling, more permeability, and higher salt rejection; hybrid membranes were utilized [43]. When it was further altered with GO, it showed a higher rejection to heavy metals from aqueous solutions, including 99.9, 99.7, and 98.3% of lead, cadmium, and chromium, respectively. Thus, in addition to better membrane transport, stronger membrane transfer features could be generated through graphene-based nanoparticles.
3.2 Nanocomposites of zeolite
The optimization of permeability and selectivity contributes to membrane performance [44]. Zeolites have demonstrated the ability to possess both high water flux and high rejection/selectivity at the same time, making them an affordable and environmentally friendly precursor for ceramic membranes [45]. Zeolites are aluminosilicate crystal formations that are porous and three-dimensional structures that are made up of silica tetrahedra or alumina as main building units [46]. These basic building units are arranged to produce secondary building units, which are in charge of giving zeolites their distinct features [47]. Now, a lot of zeolite framework modifications and more distinct types of zeolites are used in a variety of technical applications [48].
Zeolites’ distinct porous structure, which consists of flow channels, voids, and negatively charged surfaces, allows them to support water treatment applications [49]. Ions that are exchangeable balance these surface charges. Monovalent alkali metal ions and divalent alkaline earth metal ions make up the zeolite structure and so permit reactions of simple ion exchange [49]. In the pores and cavities, in addition to metal cations and water molecules, it is also possible to accommodate different types of molecules and cationic groups [50]. In a zeolite, the degree of cationic exchange and chemical stability is determined by its silica-alumina ratio [51]. Higher silica-content zeolites are more hydrophobic and therefore more suitable for eliminating new pollutants from drinking water [52]. Zeolites can function as molecular sieves or filters, based on the width of the flow channels; the framework’s atoms can be modified to change the width. Zeolites can therefore separate by charge exclusion processes, molecular sieving, ion exchange, or competitive adsorption [53].
3.3 Nanoparticles of metal oxides
Iron (Fe3O4), silicon dioxide (SiO2), manganese (MnO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), aluminum trioxide (Al2O3), and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles are among the most promising adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals and purification of water and wastewater purification [54]. They are quite efficient in diverse processes of electrochemical nature, techniques of ion exchange, and filtration by membranes [55]. This is owed to the vast surface area of the metal oxide nanoparticles and their excellent capacity for adsorption [56]. The use of nanoparticles in polymeric membranes results in improved diffusion of water and influences the hindrance effect between solvents and polymers [18]. Water that has been contaminated can be cleaned up using mixed-matrix membranes (MMM). High permeability, photocatalytic activity, hydrophilicity, antifouling behavior, and high permeability are among the remarkable physical and chemical features discovered in polymeric membranes modified by introducing nanoparticles [57].
3.3.1 Silica
Because silicon oxide (SiO2) nanoparticles can form hydroxyl bonds with the polymer matrix, they are used in membranes. Their unique properties such as lower cost, heat resistance, relative intoxication, and light-dispersing attributes have set them apart from other engineered nanoparticles. Silica nanoparticles are great additions in the creation of hydrophilic MMMs because of all the qualities [58]. Due to its benefits in RO, nanofiltration, and ultrafiltration for water decontamination, incorporating nano-sized silica into the polymer dope solution has been the focus of some studies [49]. The addition of polymeric blends to phase-inversion membranes results in increased membrane permeability, hydrophilicity, and salt rejection [59]. The surface aggregation of the nanoparticles of silica was inhibited and structure was stabilized by the addition of PVA or polyethylene glycol (PEG) molecules [60]. Their in-situ synthesis regulates their hydrophilic properties. TEOS is the alkoxide that is most frequently used due to its affordability, effortless handling, and reactions’ safety during the process of condensation [61].
3.3.2 Aluminum oxide
Alumina oxide (Al2O3) is a highly stable metal oxide that is widely utilized in both industrial and personal care applications [62]. It has several interesting properties, such as low cost, resistance to abrasion, negligible toxicity even at nanoscale scales, and chemical resistance [63]. Furthermore, in numerous chemical reactions, nano-sized alumina oxide provides robust catalytic activity. Al2O3 nanoparticles possess a strong amphiphilicity and a high heavy metal adsorption capacity, which have made them useful for creating nanocomposite thin-film membranes that retain excellent heavy metal adsorption capabilities and a high hydrophilicity for eliminating contaminants, both inorganic and organic [64]. Researchers list several intriguing characteristics, including low cost, abrasion resistance, mild toxicity even at nanoscales, and chemical resistance [65]. Nano-sized alumina oxide has strong catalytic activity in many chemical processes. High hydrophilicity and a strong ability to adsorb heavy metals have rendered Al2O3 nanoparticles useful for creating nanocomposite thin-film membranes utilized in the elimination of inorganic as well as organic pollutants [66].
3.3.3 Titanium oxide
Characteristics of nanoparticles of titanium oxide (TiO2) including their affordability, enhanced reflectivity, photocatalytic efficiency, chemical resistance, thermal resistance, enhanced electrochemical potential, amphiphilicity, nonhazardous to humans, antifoulant resistance have attracted a lot of attention [67]. The material nontoxicity claims have been controversial [68]. They have been used in membrane technology to improve the features of the membrane, including enhanced solute rejection, higher permeation, antifoulant characteristics, and unchangeable osmotic water flux [69]. The number of surface pores counts was enhanced by 1–2 wt.% of TiO2 nanoparticles and prevented the formation of macro voids. When aqueous sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) (0.7 wt.% solution) was used to coat TiO2 nanoparticles, it resulted in reduced surface agglomeration [70].
3.3.4 Nanofillers grafted with zwitterionic polymers
Zwitterionic modification of the nanoparticles was found to potentially address the nanoparticles in the membrane matrix agglomeration. When zwitterionic polymers are grafted onto the surface, problems of polymer’s insolubility and immiscibility in organic solvents that divide the organic and inorganic phases could be surmounted [71]. Yet, most studies have documented using zwitterionic functionalized nanoparticles to improve polymer composites’ biocompatibility [72]. When SiO2 grafted with lysine in combination with polyvinylidene fluoride (PVF), an asymmetric ultrafiltration (UF) membrane was generated [73]. This led to the observed improvement in the hydrophobic membrane’s antifouling activity.
For strong salt rejection and hydrophilic changes, thin-film polyamide (PA) membranes are utilized [74]. Interfacial polymerization of polyamides forms an active layer [75]. The polyimide substrate affinity for the selective layer has increased. It controls both the active layer’s development, which is essential for controlling ICP, and the reverse salt flux and rejection [76]. In addition, recent efforts are focused on improving the membrane’s structural characteristics and transport capabilities by optimizing the polymer substrate [77]. Hydrophilic alterations and strong salt rejection are achieved with Polyamide (PA) thin-film membranes, and interfacial polymerization is used to produce an active layer [78]. PA-TFC membranes are regarded as cutting-edge owing to their superior permeability and outstanding discernment.
It should be mentioned that research using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) showed that selectivity increases when solute permeability decreases. Furthermore, solute permeation is the only parameter that may simultaneously reduce the dilutive external concentration polarization within the side of the feed (ECP) and the side of the permeate polarization emanating from ICP [79].
4.2 Poly (sulfone) and polyether sulfone polymers
When creating thin-film nanocomposite membranes (TFNCMs) having significant mechanical, thermal, and chemical resistances, PSf polymers are widely employed as substrates [80]. However, fouling occurs because of their hydrophobic nature, they become less porous and permeable [81]. When Psf is modified with graphene, sulphonyl groups render it resistant to pH and chemical damage [82]. However, ICP decreased as additional highly hydrophilic polymers were added and the technique of evaporation of solvent was used in its production, significant improvement in rejection of ions occurred [83]. Additionally, sulfonation of the PES substrate increased tensile strength and permeability coefficient; wastewater reclamation and saltwater desalination were demonstrated upon mixing PES with carbon nanotube [84].
4.3 Cellulosic ester derivatives
Because of their hydrophilic nature, favored biodegradability, chlorine resistance, and economic viability, the membranes that are most utilized in the industry are those based on cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate [85]. The development of PI-fabricated hollow fiber or flat-sheet cellulosic membranes has significantly increased [86]. Analyzing and contrasting cellulose triacetate (CTA)-based commercial US-based Hydration Technology Innovations (HTI) membranes with commercial reverse osmosis membranes, the former displays a nearly 96% salt rejection and water flux [87]. Due to their distinct selective layer structure between thick layers, it has been demonstrated that fouling and ICP can be decreased by utilizing double-skinned CA membranes, while facilitating high salt rejection [88]. In the manufacturing process of CTA membranes, there are different criteria set, such as the concentration of polymer-solvent, evaporation and the times of annealing, length of coagulation, and the substrate casting, etc. [89]. Acetyl, hydroxyl, propionyl, and butyryl are the natural cellulose esters functional groups, which help cellulose-based membranes separate more effectively [90].
4.4 Chitosan-based polymers
Like cellulose nanomaterials, chitosan (CS) nanocomposites are now being studied in the domains of water and wastewater treatment because of their benefits, which include reduced price, abundant, reactive, hydrophilic, efficient water permeation, rejection/removal of salts, biodegradable, and biocompatible [91]. For wastewater treatment purposes, chitosan is a biopolymer, which has been merged with synthetic polymeric materials. Substituting amine and C-2 acetamido groups for the C-2 secondary hydroxyl groups, CS shares a structure with cellulose. It is commonly employed in heavy metal removal because it provides a lot of amino and hydroxy groups that can form chelates through electrostatic interactions with negatively charged metal oxyacid ions, cationic compounds, and positively charged metal ions [92].
Global production of end-of-life RO membranes is expected to increase annually by 2025 [93]. By creating amide bonds, CS and GO were chemically functionalized on a TFC PA membrane that showed improved permeation flux (56.1–61.5 L m−2 h−1), salt rejection (88.7–95.6%), and flux recovery ratio (FRR) (86–97%) [94].
4.5 Polyelectrolytes
The creation of functional membranes and improvements in fuel cell applications and film stability have been made possible in recent years by the layer-by-layer (LBL) (polyanion adsorption and alternative polycation) polyelectrolyte deposit membranes [95]. Water flux of water, reverse flux of salt, rejection of ions, and techniques of reconcentration are used to identify anionic polyelectrolytes in drawing solutions [96]. Reduced reverse flux has been reported when polyelectrolytes are utilized as draw solutes with high molecular weights [97]. Currently, high selectivity and increased flow are achieved by using pairs of polyelectrolytes, such as polyallylamine hydrochloride and polystyrenesulfonate, etc. [98].
5. Incorporating nanomaterials into the polymer matrix
Thicker polymer matrices are preferable for dense polymeric membranes since they typically exhibit reduced flux from diffusion-driven transport [99]. This is accomplished by impregnating the dense polymer sublayer of the membrane with a thin layer of selected materials [100]. Nanomaterials are surface-located using a variety of coating techniques, comprising self-assembly, layer-by-layer assembly, chemical grafting, and physical and chemical deposition [101].
5.1 Physical and chemical deposition
Physical deposition involves the mechanical deposition of nanoparticles within the matrix takes place by blending and immersion coating [102]. Blending of nanoparticles in the polymer dope solution is the customary practice because the phase inversion methodology requires no further steps before, during, or after it [103]. The aggregation of nanoparticles is the major drawback with this approach [104]. In immersion coating, the membrane’s entire surface is uniformly wetted and removed before dipping the active sites in the suspension of nanoparticles. Allowing it to air dry at ambient temperature is permitted. To create defect-free membranes, a variety of nanoparticles, including SiO2 and alumoxanes, are utilized [81].
Stronger bonds and less aggregation of nanoparticles are produced by chemical deposition [105]. According to observations, immobilization of silver nanoparticles by polydopamine deposition led to a drop in the concentration of the aqueous silver ammonia solution, which helped in a uniform distribution of the particles through the surface of the membrane [106]. Silver nanoparticles that formed a covalent link with a bridging agent through chemical bonding exhibited antibacterial characteristics [107].
5.2 Chemical grafting
Using grafting agents with a reactive end group and a lengthy tail, surface alteration is achieved chemically that is compatible, chemical grafting transforms nanocrystals into a continuous material [108]. Greater adherence with polymers’ matrix and increased wettability have been documented for membranes containing silicon nanoparticles grafted with PVP [109]. However, it was shown that silica nanoparticles grafted with poly(methacrylic acid) were helpful in enhancing the amphiphilicity, resistance to fouling, and bactericidal properties of the membrane [110]. Comparable self-cleaning and antifouling properties were established with the layer-by-layer coverage of the sodium alginate SA-TiO2 gel layer onto the poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF) polymer matrix [111].
5.3 Self-assembling
Molecular and nanoparticle self-assembly is an unforced course of action that leads to the formation of ordered aggregates or patterns through a variety of interactive processes, including surface forces, mediating agents, electrostatics, and chemical contact [112]. Additionally, nanoparticles can be incorporated into membrane matrixes through self-assembly deposition. Cationic-anionic adsorption and desorption equilibrium result in the formation of electrostatic interactions [113]. By assembling TiO2 with a sulphonyl group on the membrane surface, a polymer nanocomposite membrane was created that displayed superb antifouling attributes [114]. Composite membranes based on graphene can be created via self-assembly. Salt rejection and water flux were enhanced when low deposition rate membranes developed nanochannels, indicating that deposition rate has a substantial impact on membrane characteristics and performance [115].
5.4 Layer-by-layer assembly
In essence, layer-by-layer (LBL) self-assembly is a thin-film fabrication technique that includes the deposition of opposite charges comprising polyions to create alternating layers and the simultaneous washing stages that occur between [116]. This method creates complex ultrathin surface coatings by utilizing kinetic interaction-based deposition for the second and third layers and electrostatic adsorption for the first layer [117]. Functionalized multilayers are assembled by this method on the surface of the membrane and is often utilized for the creation of extraordinarily compact and packed films [118]. A thin layer is produced through electrostatic interactions, which had been activated by hydrogen bonding, covalent bonding, and charge transfer while submerged in an aqueous polyelectrolyte solution [119]. Dense structure and higher sucrose rejection were displayed by the nanosheets of graphene oxide with polyallylamine hydrochloride that were constructed layer-by-layer [118]. Analogously, polyacrylic acid, functionalized with LBL, formed copper nanoparticles that displayed bactericidal and antibiofouling attributes [120].
A common method of mixing is phase inversion, in which a homogeneous liquid polymer solution is carefully converted into a solid state [59]. Immersion precipitation is the process that occurs when de-mixing and precipitation occur through solvent-non-solvent exchange [121]. A water (a miscible non-solvent) bath used for coagulation is immersed in the cast polymer film (solvent). Thermally induced phase separation is an additional technique that involves extracting, freeze-drying, or evaporating the solvent [122]. The solvent characteristics typically decline as temperature rises. Evaporation-induced phase separation occurs when a volatile non-solvent is permitted to evaporate or precipitate [123]. On the other hand, precipitation is caused by the polymer solution being exposed to the atmosphere via means of phase separation prompted by vapor [124]. To produce polymeric membranes, immersion precipitation is often utilized.
6.2 Interface polymerization
In interfacial polymerization (IP), a thin-film polymeric membrane is dipped into an aqueous solution containing immiscible diamine monomers, such as TMC (trimesoyl chloride) and MPD (m-phenylenediamine) [125]. Such highly reactive monomers on the support substrate form a cross-linked rejection layer, this results in these two immiscible liquids to polymerize across the interface [126]. IP is recognized as being one of the most important techniques for FO, Ro, NF, and TFC manufacture [127]. The cast film’s active layer is highly sensitive to changes in its density, thickness, hydrophilicity, and resistance during membrane manufacture, all of which are determined by the chemical properties of the monomers [128]. The solvent type, response time, the monomer concentration, and post-processing requirements that influence the composition and morphology of the membrane are also significantly affected [129]. To facilitate the IP creation of ultrathin polymeric membranes, monomers that are more hydrophilic with polar groups and have a smooth surface are proposed [130].
6.3 Stretching
Microporous osmosis (FO), membrane distillation (MD), and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes are generated by the processes of dry stretching, particle stretching, and extraction [131]. The plasticizer evaporates during the process of extraction, which involves mixing plasticizer and polymer, heating the combination above the melting point, and then extruding the mixture into thin sheets [132]. Stretching is the process of extruding a polymer and particle solution, stretching the polymer matrix, and creating a porous membrane by the dry-stretch method [133]. To enhance thickness and eliminate crystalline phase defects, a polymer crystallizes to nucleate a precursor film, which is then heated to high temperatures [134].
6.4 Track-etching
A very thin polymer layer was ionized using heavier high energy ions is known as “track-etching,” process, whereas the polymer matrix is further broken down and fractured [135]. Furthermore, the polymeric thin layer is exposed to chemical inscription that creates cylindrical pores by treating the layer with acid or alkali solutions [136]. The two crucial elements are the radiation energy used and the cast’s thickness [137]. Diameters of the pores are temperature and etching time dependent, while the membrane’s porosity is determined by the duration of the radiation.
Research indicates that creating nanoporous membranes using track-etching yielded pores with a smooth outer wall and a homogeneous distribution, with sizes ranging from 10 to 70 nm [138].
6.5 Electrospinning
Electrospinning is a recent technology for desalination membranes production and other applications [129]. A spinneret creates an ionized liquid jet by applying a very strong electric current between the polymer solution and collector [139]. This approach has several advantages, including morphology, high speed, adaptability, cost-effectiveness, and unique tunable membrane aspect ratios [140]. The chamber’s ambient parameters, the molecular mass of polymer, conductance, viscosity, elastic behavior, and electrical constant control the efficacy of the technique [141].
Literature reported studies of polymeric nanocomposite membranes in terms of removal of heavy metals in the remediation of wastewater [49].
7.2 Desalination
Researchers were motivated to develop new promising techniques to employ sustainable saltwater as an alternative resource [167]. Generally, membrane separation processes (MSPs) are one of the existing techniques available for desalination as a promising one [168].
Currently, the use of nanocomposite membranes has dramatically improved the efficiency of commercial RO due to their superior water flux and higher salt rejection [169]. Ion-exchange membranes (IEMs) are another novel technology, which has demonstrated great performance in water desalination [170]. GO nanoparticles were corroborated into nanocomposite IEM fabricated by sulfonated PES, the permeability of water was enhanced by about 300% while NaCl rejection remained the same [171].
In Figure 4, a schematic renders the process of production of a thin-film nanocomposite membrane for RO-based water purification [172].
Figure 4.
Diagrammatic representation of manufacturing TFN membrane through interfacial polymerization with nanofillers that have been functionalized [171]. Copyright ACS, 2020.
Herein Table 2, we give a summary and compare performances and properties of few polyamide (PA) TFNCM membranes incorporated using the nanoparticles such as silica, halloysite nanotubes HNT, and zeolite.
Comparison of the performances as well as properties of different TFNC membranes containing zeolite nanoparticles reported in various literatures [173].
Recently, rapid desalination was achieved over a newly designed alkadiyne-pyrene conjugated framework membrane supported on a porous copper hollow fiber. This is worth mentioning. During the process of membrane distillation, the membrane demonstrates almost total rejection of NaCl (>99.9%) and extremely high fluxes (about 500 L m−2 h−1) from the seawater (NaCl solutions), outperforming commercial polymeric membranes by at least one order of magnitude. The wide aspect ratio of membrane pores and the high evaporation area are thought to be contributing factors to the high flow, according to experimental and theoretical studies. Additionally, the conjugated frameworks’ hydrophobic surface, which resembles graphene and completely excludes salt, is demonstrated. The simulations additionally validate that the intraplanar pores inside the frameworks are impermeable to ions and water [179].
We have explored the intriguing potential of various polymeric and nanoparticle-based nanocomposite membranes for desalination and the efficient removal of harmful heavy metal ions from water in this thorough review. Through the incorporation of inorganic nanofillers into the polymeric substrate, these membranes have demonstrated enhanced physicochemical properties, including porosity, hydrophilicity, and mechanical and thermal stability. Furthermore, given the remarkable characteristics of polymeric nanocomposite membranes, their use in water treatment facilities in the future presents enormous potential for improving water penetration and successfully removing heavy metal ions. Their affordability and ease of use make them especially appealing in developing areas where water is scarce and contaminated.
In sum, even though polymeric nanocomposite membranes have developed and performed remarkably well, more investigation and study are necessary to get over current challenges, guarantee long-term viability, and optimize their effects on water treatment and purification. With the potential to completely transform the field, nanocomposite membranes can play a major role in lowering the concentration of heavy metals that contaminate water sources worldwide and in desalinating water to help the world’s 4 billion people who lack access to clean water.
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Written By
Mohammed A. Sharaf and Andrzej Kloczkowski
Submitted: 15 March 2024Reviewed: 06 June 2024Published: 22 July 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
