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1. Introduction
Cheese is one of the oldest fermented and preserved foods. It was found in early civilizations. The world’s oldest cheese was recently found in an Egyptian tomb, in 2018 researchers published proteomic analyses of the solid white mass as the ancient cheese.
Today, more than 1500 varieties of cheese are classified by milk source, coagulation method, moisture content, texture, ripening or aging, and probiotic content. Cheese has great nutritional value with a good source of proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. The health benefits of cheese can be attributed to the formation of several bioactive peptides during its ripening or aging. In addition, cheeses contain healthy fatty acids, such as conjugated linoleic acid and phytanic acid. Therefore, cheese can be considered an optimally functional food. According to the EU, functional foods are foods that contain biologically active components that can improve human health or reduce the risk of disease. Recent trends to develop functional and healthier cheese varieties continue. In addition, cheese would be an ideal choice of functional foods. Several studies have reported the possibility of using the cheese matrix as a carrier for bioactive peptides, vitamins, minerals, and other innovative functional ingredients. In addition, the cheese matrix can act as a potential environment for probiotics because its matrix has a high buffering capacity and a dense protein network that protects probiotics from the harsh stomach environment. The cheese category can quickly respond to the changing needs of consumers for healthy food. This would create exciting opportunities for cheese producers. Recently, some innovations have been introduced to the market regarding cheeses as health food snacks, treats, and other forms. Cheese snacks that support satiety, fitness, and weight; snacks containing billions of live and active LGG probiotics; cheese treats enriched with vitamins A, B, and D; cheese forms supplemented with prebiotic oligosaccharides; and other cheese snacks with added liposomal micronized iron and zinc, selenium, and polyphenol (green tea catechins).
2. Cheese as a functional food with great health benefits
Cheese is a crucial food for bone health, dental and oral health, and weight management. It contains essential nutrients such as calcium, protein, magnesium, zinc, and vitamins A, D, and K, which are essential for maintaining healthy bones. Cheese proteins and their derived peptides also positively enhance bone health by regulating cellular markers and signaling of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Cheese-eating can protect against cavities by increasing saliva production during chewing and preventing erosion. Cheese has the highest anticariogenic properties among dairy products studied. Cheese consumption can also help maintain body weight due to its fat, protein, and various vitamins and minerals. Consuming full-fat cheese was linked with a lower risk of obesity compared to low-fat cheese. Balancing cheese intake with low-energy-dense foods, such as fruits and vegetables, is wise. Cheese can also promote satiety as it enhances the feeling of inhibition over further eating and between meals. High protein content in cheese enhances satiety regardless of fat content, providing the potential for decreased energy intake when included as part of a diet.
Low-sodium cheeses, such as Swiss, mozzarella, ricotta, feta, cottage, parmesan, goat cheese, and low-fat cream cheese, can help lower blood pressure. Cheese proteins are rich in ACE inhibitory peptides that can significantly lower blood pressure. Some research has found a link between a diet containing cheese and lower blood pressure, with studies showing that adding certain cheeses to a diet may lead to a decrease in blood pressure.
Cheese and other dairy products are rich sources of antioxidants, which are essential for brain health and neurodegeneration. Cheese’s antioxidant properties are attributed to the degradation of casein during ripening, and probiotic cultures can increase its antioxidant activity. Consuming cheese may protect against sodium-rich foods as it contains proteins and peptides that protect blood vessels from short-term adverse effects.
Cheese found to promote gut health by containing probiotic bacteria, which are necessary for maintaining cholesterol levels. Studies have shown that fermented dairy products can change the intestinal microbiota in favor of the host, promoting the growth of
Cheese can help to prevent common cancers, such as colon and bladder cancer. The calcium content of cheese can help prevent these cancers, and cheese may contain specific anticancer peptides produced during cheese processing. Milk proteins are promising candidates for developing anticancer drugs, and peptides derived from dairy products can be detected in fermented milk products, such as cheese.
Immunity support is another benefit of cheese as it contains conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which may help reduce inflammation and protect against coronary heart disease and obesity. Full-fat dairy products can be healthy when eaten in moderation, and cheese enriched with probiotic microorganisms can strengthen the immune system and prevent immune aging.
Muscle health is also improved by cheese consumption as it increases muscle protein synthesis. Ingestion of cheese protein leads to increased plasma amino acid concentration and subsequently increases muscle protein synthesis.
3. Cheese as a vehicle for functional ingredients (cheese fortification)
Cheese fortification increases the number of essential micronutrients in food while improving its nutritional value and providing health benefits with little to no risk. Fortification is the addition of a nutrient, known as a fortifier or additive, to a cheese variety. This nutrient is either absent or present in low concentrations and acts as a carrier within the meal. Fortification aims to eliminate nutrient intake deficiencies and the resulting deficiencies. It aims to achieve a balanced overall nutrient profile, compensate for nutrient losses during processing, and meet the needs of consumers looking to supplement their diet. As a result, cheese fortification is used as a public health practice to increase the consumption of essential nutrients.
3.1 Minerals fortification
3.1.1 Iron
A crucial component of human nutrition is iron (Fe). Iron insufficiency is a prevalent and pervasive issue in both industrialized and developing nations. The addition of iron derivatives to food, such as cheese, can be considered a potential strategy for the prevention of iron insufficiency. The nutritional content of dairy products can be enhanced through the fortification of iron (Fe). However, there is a potential for a negative impact on the appeal of cheese. The organoleptic alterations and bioavailability of iron are influenced by various factors, including the physical qualities of the added iron (such as valence, solubility, and degree of chelation), as well as the physical features of iron after processing or storage. The incorporation of iron in Fe-fortified cheese is achieved through the formation of iron-polyphosphate/whey-protein complexes, ferric casein complex, and the addition of ferric chloride (FeCl3). The process of fortifying cheeses with iron enhances their role as primary sources of dietary iron, hence decreasing the prevalence of iron insufficiency. If all cheeses were fortified, there would be a 14% increase in the average intake of Fe. Research conducted on Cheddar cheese indicates that it is feasible to fortify the cheese with iron without adversely affecting its quality; cheddar cheese remains unaffected by any iron supply, even after a 12-month aging period. Recently, a micronized, dispersible ferric pyrophosphate (Sunactive Fe) has been used in Japan to fortify milk and milk products. Milk products have previously been shown to be difficult to fortify with readily absorbable iron due to organoleptic problems. Published studies showed that iron absorption from Sunactive Fe is similar to that of ferrous sulfate from a fortified infant cereal, as well as from fortified dairy products. The high relative bioavailability is presumable due to the very small particle size. Micronized dispersible ferric pyrophosphate can be expected to provoke fewer unacceptable sensory changes than water-soluble iron compounds in different food vehicles; therefore, some cheese varieties fortified with Sunactive Fe have been launched in the Japanese market.
3.1.2 Zinc
Zinc is a vital micronutrient that is naturally occurring in various food sources. The human body cannot store zinc and hence necessitates regular consumption of this mineral to sustain overall well-being and preserve optimal health. Foods that are consumed in significant quantities, such as cheese, are regarded as preferred vehicles for fortifying food products with low zinc concentrations. Hence, the fortification of cheese with zinc presents a commendable opportunity to enhance the nutritional value of the diet for individuals who are susceptible to certain health risks. Zinc supplementation has been found to offer a modest level of antioxidant protection throughout the maturing process of Cheddar and Edam cheeses. Additionally, it has been shown that the inclusion of zinc-fortified Edam cheese has the potential to enhance the maturation process and enhance the sensory characteristics of the product. In Japan, there has been a recent utilization of a micronized and dispersible form of Zinc oxide known as Sunactive Zn to fortify various food products, including select varieties of cheeses. SunActive Zn fortified cheese offers enhanced bioavailability, prevention of precipitation, increased stability, and elimination of any undesirable taste associated with zinc.
3.1.3 Selenium
Milk proteins can effectively retain selenium, resulting in its subsequent transfer during the cheese-making process. Selenium-containing amino acids, such as Se-methionine, can be readily integrated into milk proteins, so rendering cheese a favorable dietary source of selenium. Caciocavallo cheese, which is produced using milk that has been enriched with Se. This particular cheese variant exhibits an increased concentration of linoleic acid and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Also, it has been reported that fortification of Turkish white cheese with Se through fortification of brine solution during the ripening process, yielded the highest selenium recovery, this resulted in a recovery rate of 70.91%.
3.2 Vitamins fortification
Vitamin D is frequently utilized as a fortifying agent in cheese, whereas vitamins A, C, and E are commonly found in other sectors of the food industry. The compounds C and E have been found to possess properties that stabilize fat and may potentially be utilized in the production of cheese. Ricotta cheese, a well-known and widely consumed Italian fresh whey cheese, is traditionally made from cow’s milk. The implementation of food fortification has proven to be an effective approach in mitigating the widespread occurrence of vitamin D insufficiency on a global scale. A published study provides evidence that ricotta cheese serves as a suitable substitute dairy medium for the fortification of vitamin D3. The incorporation of emulsified flaxseed oil enables the fortification of vitamin D3 in cheese. The addition of vitamin D3 and PUFA to cheese resulted in favorable effects on the composition, yield, and chemical stability of the final product. Obtaining vitamin D from dietary sources poses challenges due to its limited natural occurrence in food. The cheese matrix is an effective medium for delivering vitamin D. Hence, the utilization of microencapsulation is essential to maintain the functionality of vitamin D. This technique has significant advantages such as enhanced stability against mechanical and photochemical stress, higher oral bioavailability, and enhanced organoleptic qualities. The thermal stability of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E is noteworthy as they do not undergo degradation with the storage time. The addition of vitamins A and E has been found to offer enhanced protection against lipid peroxidation throughout the three-month aging process of Cheddar cheese, and the incorporation of lecithin has been found to result in a 15% increase in the retention of vitamin A and a 26% increase in the retention of vitamin E. Cottage cheese, which has been enriched with vitamins C and A, has a retention rate of 70% and 75%, respectively, over 2 weeks of refrigeration at a temperature of 3°C. Notably, this retention occurs without any discernible alterations to the cheese’s flavor, aroma, or appearance. To develop a fortified cheese with vitamin B12, the use of encapsulation vitamin B12 within double emulsions demonstrated an efficiency exceeding 96% and effectively prevented the loss of vitamin content during simulated stomach digestion in laboratory settings. The double emulsion stabilized with sodium caseinate exhibited a release efficiency of less than 5% for encapsulated vitamin B12. Specifically, the encapsulation process boosted the retention rate from 6.3% to over 90% in fortified cheese.
3.3 Addition of bioactive materials
3.3.1 Omega 3 and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
The incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) into cheese occurs during the cheese-making process. The oxidation of these highly unsaturated fatty acids leads to the production of distinct odors such as oxidized, rancid, or fishy odors. Microencapsulation is employed as a technique to conceal undesirable sensory attributes and safeguard polyunsaturated fatty acids throughout their processing. The use of flaxseed oil, which is abundant in alpha-linolenic acid, enables the enhancement of cheese with omega-3 and other polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The utilization of calcium caseinate for stabilizing flaxseed oil particles has resulted in enhanced resistance against lipid peroxidation and improved chemical stability in fortified cheese. The addition of omega 3 and PUFAs to cheese resulted in favorable effects on the composition, yield, and chemical stability of the resultant fortified cheese. A recent study reported successful trials to fortify food with nanoliposomal encapsulated omega-3 and PUFAs, and another study showed the increase of the bioavailability of omega-3 in fortified dairy products by nanoemulsion of algal oil rich in omega 3.
3.3.2 Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) refers to a group of isomers that are found in meat and dairy products obtained from ruminant animals. The cis-9/trans-11 and trans-10/cis-12 isomers of CLA are considered to be bioactive. Several investigations have identified alternative CLA isomers in aged cheeses. In the field of fortification, the incorporation of CLA poses a challenge due to its hydrophobic nature. Hence, in aquatic environments, it is more advantageous to introduce the product in the form of an emulsion. Moreover, it is imperative to homogenize the fortified milk before the cheese production process to provide a uniform dispersion and stabilization of fatty acids.
3.3.3 Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)
GABA is an amino acid that works as a neurotransmitter inhibitor inside the central nervous system of mammals. GABA has been demonstrated to have significant impacts on brain function, including the potential to mitigate or prevent conditions such as anxiety, depression, insomnia, and memory impairment. Additionally, GABA has been found to boost the immune system, inhibit inflammation processes, and potentially offer protective effects against hypertension and diabetes. GABA is found naturally in trace amounts in several plant-based meals and is particularly abundant in fermented items, such as fermented dairy products, such as cheese. Several studies have documented the capacity of specific strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria to synthesize GABA. It has been reported the capacity of
3.3.4 Coenzyme Q10 and ubiquinol
Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a potent natural antioxidant that plays a crucial function in cellular bioenergetics and has been associated with a wide range of established health advantages. The fortification of food products has the potential to substantially boost intake. However, achieving this goal has been challenging, especially with low-fat, water-based products, mostly due to their lipophilicity. Various forms of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) with enhanced water solubility or dispersibility have been formulated to enable the enrichment of aqueous products and enhance their bioavailability. The bioactivity of CoQ10 can be maintained when it is integrated into cheese. The encapsulation of coenzyme Q10 in a simple emulsion could improve the stability of CoQ10 in cheese.
Ubiquinol, a bioactive form of Q10, has enhanced absorption properties and is commonly utilized in the production of dietary supplements. In Japan, ubiquinol serves as an effective fortifying agent for functional foods, including several forms of functional cheese.
3.3.5 Collagen peptides
Collagen peptides, found in dairy products such as cheese, have various applications in addressing skin aging, managing conditions, such as osteoarthritis, and improving nail strength. They are particularly useful in cheese production, where hydrolyzed collagen can enhance structural, mechanical, and health-related characteristics, and play a crucial role in the management and prevention of osteoporosis and related ailments.
3.3.6 Carotenoids
Lutein-fortified cheeses provide daily carotenoid intake and can help prevent oxidative stress-related illnesses. Lutein-enriched cheeses can preserve physical-chemical, microbiological, and sensory attributes without significant changes. Lutein exhibits favorable stability characteristics during storage, rendering cheeses a suitable carrier for delivery.
3.3.7 Polyphenols
Polyphenols, such as green tea polyphenols, have antioxidant properties and can interact with protein, carbohydrates, and lipids, affecting the nutritional composition of cheese. The cheese curd matrix exhibits a significant capacity for the retention and preservation of polyphenols that are incorporated into it.
3.3.8 Other additives
Various additives as plant and animal by-products have been reported in many published researches. The fortification aimed to enhance cheese organoleptic, sensory, and health benefits of the fortified cheeses. Ingredients, such as tomato, cranberry, green tea, broccoli, grape, Morinaga, asparagus, saffron, hibiscus, and others, have been published.
3.4 Probiotics fortification
Probiotics are live microorganisms that can improve the health of a host when administered in adequate quantities. Cheese is an ideal carrier for probiotics due to its protective barrier against acidic conditions in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and its high lipid content, which provides additional safeguarding during transportation. Probiotics can be used in cheese fortification with other strategies, such as iron or zinc fortification, to enhance sensory attributes and make “multi-fortified” cheese a commercially viable product. Cottage cheeses offer several advantages over other dietary options, including pH, fat content, mechanical consistency, low oxygen level, less demanding technological requirements, non-matured state, cold storage, and short shelf-life. Probiotics compete with pathogenic bacteria within the gastrointestinal tract, producing peptides called bacteriocins with antibiotic-like properties. These enzymes inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria, such as
3.5 Prebiotics fortification
Prebiotics are nondigestible food components that give probiotic microorganisms nourishment, increasing their chances of survival and implantation in the host digestive system. Inulin and fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are significant prebiotic components in foods, providing nourishment to probiotic microorganisms and enhancing their survival and implantation in the host’s digestive system. Inulin and FOS have been used in cheese making to create reduced-fat cheese additives with prebiotic properties and dietary fiber. Incorporating inulin into soft cheese and cream cheese yielded lower fat content and elevated moisture levels, with a satisfactory resemblance to the control cheeses. However, the retention of inulin was inadequate to achieve the necessary functional properties. Galactomannans, hydrophilic polysaccharides obtained from legume seeds, have nontoxic characteristics and emulsifying and gelling qualities, facilitating the creation of a protective coating. Chitosan, a biopolymer derived from crustacean exoskeletons, has inhibitory properties against bacteria and fungi proliferation and can be enhanced by fatty acids. Its desirable attributes include biodegradability, biocompatibility with human tissues, and non-toxicity. Incorporating FOS in reduced-fat formulations indicates a potential resemblance to the structure and overall qualities of the original full-fat cheese. However, achieving an exact replication of full-fat cheese after fat reduction is challenging, and the inclusion of FOS presents a technological obstacle.
4. Cheese novelties as healthy snaking trends
As a result of its natural nutritional advantages, such as its high protein and calcium content, the recent trend to develop functional and/or functional cheese, therefore, cheese is becoming more and more popular as a snack food. Cheese is a product that offers opportunities for creativity in terms of taste, format, texture, and flavor, while also being considered luxurious. Cheese has the potential to rival other widely consumed protein snacks, such as nutrition bars and jerky, in terms of its ability to promote satiety and contribute to fitness and weight management goals as a nutritious protein snack, particularly when consumed in a single-serve portion.
The impetus behind advancements in cheese production is driven by the growing inclination toward nutritious snacking, a phenomenon that is propelled by the demands of fast-paced lifestyles and the increasing urbanization of society. In the context of smaller sizes, cheese producers prioritize the examination and promotion of the nutritional advantages associated with their products.
Cheese snacks are a suitable choice for health-conscious individuals seeking nutritious snacking alternatives as they offer a natural source of high protein and low-fat milk along with additional health advantages. A recently emerged category within the cheese snack market is that of solid shelf-stable cheese snacks (SSSCs). These snacks are comprised solely of dehydrated natural cheese, rendering them both nourishing and satisfying, while also possessing a convenient and enticing texture. To enhance their attractiveness, SSSCs are available in a variety of dimensions, configurations, arrangements, and tastes. The user did not provide any text to rewrite. Nevertheless, it is imperative to conduct additional studies to enhance nutrition and intestinal health, decrease sodium levels, and advocate for sustainable manufacturing methods. The exploration of innovations in novel packaging materials is equally deserving of attention.
The opportunities to innovate with cheese snacks are infinite, as cheese pairs well with salty, savory, and sweet accompaniments. Cheese also may be cut and formed into many shapes and sizes. Moreover, cheese can be loaded with nutrients, namely protein and calcium, which appeal to health- and wellness-conscious consumers.
Cheese snack innovations are on the rise. Cheese may be cut and formed into many shapes and sizes healthy and functional cheese varieties would be available in the form of small portions, bites, balls, slices, sachets, and others to offer a dose-controlled fortified and/or functional cheese, which appeals to health- and wellness-conscious consumers.
5. Cheese as a rich source of valuable materials
5.1 Calcium
Cheese is a great dietary source of calcium, essential for sustaining life and regulating vascular function, neuronal transmission, muscle function, and hormone secretion. Only 1% of the total calcium is needed for specific physiological processes, while the remaining 99% is primarily sequestered within the skeletal system. Calcium intake is around 1000 mg for the average adult.
5.2 Proteins
Cheese is also a great source of protein, essential for the body’s formation, regulation, repair, and protection. Approximately 1–2 servings of protein-rich foods per day are sufficient for most adults. Parmesan cheese is the most protein-rich option, with one ounce providing seven grams.
5.3 Vitamin K2 and B12
Cheese is rich in essential vitamins K2, B12, and B12, which are crucial for hemostasis and brain function. Vitamin K2 is less emphasized than K1, but it interacts with calcium and vitamin D. Hard cheeses, such as gouda and brie, have higher levels of vitamin K2, with gouda and brie having the highest levels. Vitamin B12, the largest and most complex vitamin, is essential for erythrocyte synthesis, protein synthesis, and cognitive processes. Cheeses, such as Swiss cheese, have the highest concentration of B-12, providing 39% of the recommended daily intake.
5.4 Healthy fats
Cheese, in moderation, can help you get these necessary fats into your diet. Try choosing aged cheeses, such as parmesan, and using it as a garnish for salads. The fats in the cheese will help keep you full and help your body absorb the vitamins in your vegetables.
5.5 Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a complex molecule often underappreciated due to low-fat and no-fat dietary patterns. CLA is a vital component of a healthy diet, often found in dairy and meat products derived from grass-fed ruminant animals. It aids in reducing adipose tissue, promoting lean muscle mass, and supporting immune and inflammatory systems. Cheese derived from grass-fed cows typically contains high levels of CLA, which is positively correlated with fresh grass consumption.
5.6 Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)
GABA would occur naturally in various types of cheese as a byproduct of certain starter cultures. The concentration of GABA found in 22 varieties of Italian cheese ranged from 0.260 to 391 mg/kg, and from 320 to 6773.5 mg/kg in Cheddar cheese. The GABA concentration detected in the latter studies ranged between 15 and 5000 mg/kg, even though L-glutamate was added to milk before starting the fermentation process. Also, it has been reported that