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Nature-Inspired Nano Cellulose Materials, Advancements in Nano Cellulose Preparation and Versatile Applications
Written By
Hanumanthu Jeevan Rao, Sanjay Singh, Perumalla Janaki Ramulu, Narender Singh, Thiago F. Santos, Caroliny M. Santos, Nandini Robin Nadar and Gara Dheeraj Kumar
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A promising ecofriendly, cost-effective biomaterial derived from natural sources, i.e., lignocellulose natural fibers from trees, plants, agri waste, fruits, vegetables, seeds, and leaves. It clicked the attention of the researchers due to promising properties and versatility. The aim of the study is to examine the recent developments and preparation methods and extraction techniques for nanolignocellulose materials from nature. It also discusses the wide range of applications that use nano cellulose’s remarkable properties for a variety of research fields. Current work discussed advancements in nano cellulose preparation techniques, innovative methods, and cutting-edge applications. The ease of nano cellulose excels as a material for tissue engineering scaffolds, wound dressings, flexible and sustainable electronics, and drug delivery systems in the biomedical industry. It is desirable component in composites due to its remarkable reinforcing abilities in polymers. The use of environmental applications such as water purification, oil spill cleanup, and biodegradable packaging is also highlighted in this research. The studies emphasize the need for more investigation and optimization of extraction processes, characterization, and applications. This multidisciplinary study intends to motivate academics and scientists to fully utilize nano cellulose and contribute to the creation of environmentally friendly and sustainable solutions across a range of industries.
Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sanjay Singh
Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Perumalla Janaki Ramulu
Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering, ASTU, Adama, Ethiopia
Narender Singh
Amity Institute of Aerospace Engineering, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Thiago F. Santos
Postgraduate Program in Chemical Engineering, Technology Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
Caroliny M. Santos
Postgraduate Program in Chemical Engineering, Technology Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
Nandini Robin Nadar
Department of Aerospace, Jain (Deemed-to-be University), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Gara Dheeraj Kumar
Department of Aerospace, Jain (Deemed-to-be University), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
*Address all correspondence to: jeevan.rao14@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Nanocellulose has received significant interest due to its mechanical and optical properties [1], biodegradability [2], availability [3], recyclability [4], renewability [5], and low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) [6] as exhibited in Figure 1. This nanomaterial has been reported as an intriguing sustainable and tunable platform for the manufacturing of a variety of high-value products. It can take the shape of nanofibrils or nanocrystals [7]. Microcellulose materials derived from nature constitute a promising class of biomaterials distinguished by remarkable qualities and a broad range of possible applications. These naturally occurring materials have attracted a lot of interest because of their exceptional mechanical strength, large surface area, biocompatibility, and environmentally favorable characteristics [8, 9]. An increasingly popular substitute for synthetic materials in a variety of industries is nanocellulose, a derivative made from abundant and sustainable plant sources [10]. With a focus on cutting-edge extraction methods, this study provides a thorough review of the most recent developments in nanocellulose synthesis and its many applications. Cellulose, the most common biopolymer on Earth, serves as the fundamental building element of plant cell walls. Microfibrils make up its hierarchical structure, which can be further broken down into nanoscale dimensions [11]. Numerous extraction techniques are used to produce nanocellulose, each of which has unique benefits and features. Techniques for mechanical disintegration that efficiently shrink cellulose fibers to nanoscale dimensions include high-pressure homogenization and ultrasonication [12]. Meanwhile, amorphous portions are selectively removed using chemical methods such acid hydrolysis and oxidation, producing extremely crystalline nanocellulose [13]. Furthermore, environmentally conscious extraction methods involve enzymatic processes that harness cellulase enzymes to derive nanocellulose from cellulose-rich sources [14].
Figure 1.
Availability, extraction, and applications of nano cellulose.
In recent trends, the efficiency and sustainability of nanocellulose extraction processes have taken center stage. The quest for greener alternatives has led to the exploration of eco-friendly solvents, aiming to replace traditional chemicals and minimize environmental impact. Enzymatic techniques have gained prominence due to their exceptional selectivity, low energy requirements, and minimal waste generation. Researchers have also investigated synergistic combinations of multiple extraction methods to maximize nanocellulose yield and enhance its properties. The overarching objective of ongoing research endeavors is to establish scalable and cost-effective extraction methodologies that enable large-scale production of nanocellulose for industrial applications [15]. In essence, the remarkable attributes of nature-inspired nanocellulose materials, coupled with advancements in extraction techniques, hold the promise of revolutionizing various industries through sustainable and innovative solutions [16]. This article provides a comprehensive exploration of these breakthroughs, shedding light on the potential of nanocellulose as a versatile and environmentally conscious biomaterial as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Extraction process of nano cellulose.
Its characteristics have been further improved and its prospective uses have been increased because of improvements in nanocellulose preparation procedures [17]. Functional additives have been added to nano cellulose to give it certain functions, enabling customized applications in a variety of industries. These additions include nanoparticles, polymers, and biomolecules. To fine-tune the surface features and increase interfacial adhesion in composite materials, surface modifications through grafting or chemical treatments have been used. These preparation methods have led the way for the creation of hydrogels, films, coatings, and composites based on nanocellulose that exhibit extraordinary properties and have a wide range of applications, from electronics to healthcare [18]. Nano cellulose’s adaptability is demonstrated in a wide range of study fields. Due to their biocompatibility and biodegradability, nano cellulose-based materials are used in biomedicine as diagnostic platforms, scaffolds for tissue engineering, wound dressings, and drug delivery systems [19]. Taking use of its superior mechanical qualities and electrical conductivity, nano cellulose has demonstrated promise as a sustainable option for flexible electronic devices and sensors in nanoelectronics. Additionally, due to its remarkable adsorption capability and biodegradability, nano cellulose has attracted interest in environmental applications such as water filtration, oil spill repair, and sustainable packaging options. A paradigm change in materials research and engineering has been sparked by nature-inspired nano cellulose materials, which provide a green and sustainable alternative to traditional materials. The goal of this study work is to present a thorough grasp of the developments in nano cellulose preparation methods, flexible applications, and the most recent extraction method trends. It is believed that by putting light on the most recent advancements in this area, researchers and scientists would be motivated to investigate the enormous potential of nano cellulose, advancing the development of sustainable technologies and applications in a variety of industries.
2. Work carried by the researchers in the last decade
The number of papers published annually varied from 2012 to 2022, but it witnessed a rise as of 2017 with 38 articles and reached a peak in 2022 with 72 published articles. Figure 3 depicts the annual trends in publications on this topic (nano cellulose; preparation; synthesis; applications) based on a sample of 436 articles gathered on August 2022. As shown in Figure 3, the publication on nanocellulose for versatile applications increases every year, especially for packaging, capacitors, batteries, drug delivery, water filtration, and sensing devices applications [20]. The rise in papers discussing the use of nanocellulose for batteries, packaging, capacitors, medicine delivery, water filtering, and sensing devices is a clear sign of the material’s possible future uses. Because of its exceptional physiochemical and biological properties, nanocellulose has emerged as a material with potential for a variety of applications thanks to the rapid growth of nanotechnology and materials science. According to Figure 3, the number of articles has been increasing exponentially while the number of citations has decreased during the past 5 years in the field of nanocellulose. This was due to a balance between new discoveries and existing advances. This may result in a temporary decrease in citations as the scientific community works to incorporate and evaluate the newly available information. Considering the aforementioned properties of nanocellulose, transforming this renewable material, which reduces carbon footprint into advanced products is a crucial step toward sustainable development [21].
Figure 3.
Articles published annually from 2012 to 2022 in “nano AND cellulose*; preparation* OR syntes*; applications”.
2.1 2010–2012
The researchers aimed to identify and develop the various natural fibers and micro cellulose and nano cellulose extraction techniques for lignocellulose materials. Various mechanical techniques such as high-pressure homogenization and ultrasonication were identified to extract the desired efficient micro and nano fibrils and, they break down lignocellulose biomass into nano scale [22, 23]. Different chemical treatments, such as acid hydrolysis and oxidative methods, were studied, implemented, and investigated to convert the material phases and generation of crystalline nano lignocellulose [24]. In addition to that, enzymatic approaches received attention due to sustainable and eco-friendly nature and particularly in producing cellulose to nano fibrils and particles.
2.2 2013–2015
Scientific community focused on multiplying the productivity and adaptability for suitable applications of nano cellulose development methods. New and eco-friendly solutions, chemical combinations were developed to substitute older chemicals in extraction methods, intended to minimize the environmental effects. Also, there is development in combination of different techniques to improve the quality of the materials extractions and these combinations minimize the energy consumption and time for the processes [25]. Also, researchers focused on characterization of the Nano lignocellulose and investigations carrying on its structural, mechanical, chemical, thermal and Morphological properties for suitable sustainable applications.
2.3 2016–2018
The enhancement in the nano cellulose excitation continued with various sources, also the functionalization of the materials is very important in the applications like energy storage, water filtration, drug delivery and bio textiles during the extraction process [26, 27]. Also, the scientific community started adding some nano materials to improve the specific properties nano cellulose, making it more adaptive for desired applications. By using various chemical treatments, the surface modifications of nano cellulose are improved and investigated various combinations, it is enhancing the different parameter of the nano cellulose thermal stability, crystallinity, surface roughness, morphology is very useful for development of advanced composite materials [28].
2.4 2019–2022
Researchers are currently concentrating more on the difficulties associated with extracting a significant amount of nanocellulose from different types of biomasses [29, 30, 31] and their byproducts as shown in Figure 4. Numerous adjustments were made to extraction procedures to improve production effectiveness and lower costs, making nanocellulose economically feasible for a variety of sectors. To fulfill industrial objectives, scaling-up enzymatic procedures and continuous flow extraction techniques became popular. To further increase the accessibility and sustainability of nanocellulose, researchers looked into other sources of cellulose-rich materials [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. Interdisciplinary research partnerships also developed, bringing together specialists from diverse sectors to create cutting-edge, environmentally friendly extraction methods. Research efforts to comprehend the potential negative effects of nanocellulose extraction on human health and the environment increased, resulting in the creation of safer and more environmentally friendly extraction techniques. Overall, the field of nano cellulose extraction made tremendous strides between 2010 and 2022 as researchers worked to increase the effectiveness, scalability, and sustainability of extraction techniques. These developments pave the way for the widespread use of nanocellulose materials inspired by nature in a variety of fields, such as biomedicine, electronics, packaging, and environmental remediation [38].
FTIR identified characteristic peaks for cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in the biomass-based nano cellulose was carried out using a Thermos Scientific Nicolet iS50 FTIR Spectrometer, and the characterization revealed the real functional groups connected to the with nano cellulose sample. Crystallinity degree of nano cellulose was determined, indicating its potential for structural applications, FTIR analysis provided insights into the thermal stability of the nano cellulose, relevant for its processing and applications to view the FTIR spectra on any nano cellulose particles, it mixed with potassium bromide in the appropriate ratio, and samples are subsequently pelletized using an XLR pellet press. With a scan rate resolution, the FTIR spectra identified the range between 4000 and 400 cm−1.
3.2 X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
XRD helps quantify the crystallinity index (CI), a measure of the ordered crystalline portion of the nano cellulose. High CI indicates strong cellulosic chains and potentially superior mechanical properties. XRD peak broadening can be used to estimate the average size of crystalline domains (crystallites) in the nano cellulose. Larger crystallites often improve strength and stiffness, while smaller ones enhance surface area and reactivity. XRD patterns can also provide information about crystal morphology, such as the presence of preferred orientations. Besides cellulose, natural fibers may contain other components like hemicellulose, lignin, and minerals. XRD can identify these impurities by their characteristic peaks, allowing assessment of the purity of the extracted nano cellulose. This knowledge is crucial for understanding the properties and potential applications of the material. Different XRD peak intensities and profiles reveal the arrangement of cellulose chains within the orientations. The Bruker D8 Advance X-Ray diffraction instrument was used to compute the nano cellulose’s crystallography and identify its crystalline characteristics. The mechanical, thermal, and tribological properties of the fiber were affected by these crystalline effects on a small number of the nanocellulose particles that were characterized. With a spectrum magnification mode of 2 and a step size of 0.02° at room temperature, the instrument scanning range ranged from 10° to 80°.
3.3 Thermogravimetry analysis (TGA)
TGA measures the mass loss of a material as its temperature increases. For nano cellulose, TGA identifies the decomposition temperature, marking the onset of significant mass loss. A higher decomposition temperature indicates greater thermal stability, making the material suitable for high-temperature applications. TGA also reveals the onset temperature, at which initial mass loss starts, providing insights into the initial thermal behavior. TGA curves help elucidate the mechanisms of thermal degradation in nano cellulose. Multiple mass loss steps often indicate the breakdown of different components like cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin at different temperatures. Analyzing the weight loss percentages and temperature ranges can reveal the dominant degradation mechanisms, such as dehydration, depolymerization, and charring, TGA can be used to assess the impact of processing methods and chemical modifications on the thermal stability of nano cellulose. Treatments like mercerization or acetylation can alter the thermal degradation profile by influencing crystallinity, chain structure, and functional groups. Understanding these effects helps optimize processing and tailor nano cellulose for specific thermal performance requirements Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA), which was carried out with the TGA-DTA Perkin Elmer STA6000, Perkin Elmer Diamond, and an instrument with an integrated Pure Platinum Pan Furnace Holder with Ring for Sample Handling with Temperature Rise and Appropriate Balancing, revealed the separation of functional groups of the nano cellulose regarding weight loss. The loaded fibril specimen’s thermal conditions steadily increase up to 20 C to 1000 C with a temperature ramp of 20.00 C/min. However, pure Nitrogen is delivered at a 20 ml/min effective flow rate, maintaining the camber conditions.
3.4 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
By using a Netzsch DSC 204f1 Phoenix Instruments, researchers were able to measure the thermal characteristics of nanocellulose in relation to the material’s transition temperature as well as the amount of heat emitted by the sample. The thermal transition rate was 20–400°C. In conjunction with nitrogen gas, the sample was placed in an aluminum tray with a pierced cap, which escalated the temperature until the fiber took the form of ash.
3.5 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
TEM offers high-resolution images of NFC, revealing its individual fibrils, their diameter, length, and surface features. This level of detail is crucial for understanding the influence of processing methods (e.g., acid hydrolysis, mechanical fibrillation) on the morphology of NFC, which impacts its properties and applications. TEM analysis can be coupled with selected area electron diffraction (SAED) to examine the crystal structure of NFC.SAED patterns reveal the arrangement of cellulose chains within the crystallites, providing information about the crystallinity index (CI) and crystal orientation. High CI indicates a well-ordered crystalline structure, potentially leading to superior mechanical properties in NFC-based materials. TEM can also detect the presence of aggregates, bundles, or entangled regions within the NFC structure, providing insights into its dispersion behavior. Transmission electron microscopy is typically employed by Meditec, Inc., Oberkochen, Germany, to determine the micro anatomy of nanocellulose. Prior to bath sonication, samples were prepared as 200–300 nm-sized particles in water and ethanol. To hasten the volatilization of fluids from the grid, ethanol was added. Also, TEM can be used to investigate specific features of NFC, such as the presence of pores, internal defects, or surface modifications by chemical treatments. It allows visualization of functional groups attached to the surface, which are crucial for further modifications and interactions with other materials. This information is valuable for tailoring NFC for specific applications like composites, biofilms, or drug delivery systems.
3.6 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
SEM offers high-magnification images, revealing the surface texture, roughness, and presence of features like pores, cracks, or fibril bundles in NFC.
This information is crucial for understanding the adhesion and interaction of NFC with other materials, impacting its performance in composites, membranes, or bio-based materials. SEM can also visualize the distribution of chemical modifications or coatings applied to the NFC surface, providing insights into its surface functionality. SEM allows observation of the arrangement and connectivity of individual NFC fibrils within the network. It can reveal the presence of entanglement, aggregation, or bridging between fibrils, influencing the overall porosity, strength, and stability of the NFC scaffold. Understanding the network structure helps tailor processing methods to achieve desired properties in NFC-based materials like gels, films, or scaffolds for tissue engineering. SEM can identify and characterize the presence of any remaining impurities or contaminants in the NFC, such as residual lignin, hemicellulose, or mineral particles. These impurities can affect the mechanical properties, surface chemistry, and functionality of NFC and therefore need to be minimized for specific applications. By providing visual evidence of their presence and distribution, SEM guides optimization of purification processes for obtaining high-quality NFCWith the JEOL - JSM-6390 - Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) instrument, the scanning of the Nano lignocellulose is observed with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with Nano lignocellulose atoms to produce the topography of the fiber surface with quality images seen in high convention scanning electron microscopy mode with 4.0 nm, and the electron beam’s accelerating voltage is 0.5 to 30 kV at room temperature.
3.7 Particle size analyzer
A particle size analyzer (Nano-ZS, Malvern Instruments Ltd., UK) was used to measure the physical parameters of nanocellulose, including diameter, size distribution, and zeta potential. Just before analysis, the samples were diluted by deionized water five times to measure zeta potential.
3.8 Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
Unlike SEM, AFM operates at the atomic level, providing incredibly detailed images of the NFC surface. It can visualize individual cellulose chains, their orientation, and surface features like pores, roughness, and defects with unparalleled resolution. This information is crucial for understanding the surface chemistry, reactivity, and interaction of NFC with other materials at the molecular level. AFM goes beyond imaging by measuring the surface forces and mechanical properties of NFC at the nanoscale. It can determine the elasticity, stiffness, adhesion, and friction of individual fibrils within the NFC network. This knowledge contributes to tailoring NFC for specific applications requiring high strength, flexibility, or controlled interactions with other materials. AFM can be used to directly observe the distribution and morphology of chemical modifications or coatings applied to the NFC surface. It can visualize grafted functional groups, polymer attachments, or nanoparticles deposited on the cellulose chains. This information is vital for understanding the effectiveness of surface modifications in enhancing specific properties of NFC for applications like filtration, drug delivery, or biocatalysis. The potential information of Nano cellulose surface roughness, average surface roughness-(Ra), Root mean square (RMS)roughness-(Rq), Different point average surface roughness-(Rz), Skewness-(Rsk), Kurtosis-(RKU), and it exhibits the highest peak-to-valley height (Rt), was observed using the scanning probe microscopy of AFM technique. Asylum Research, MFP-3D BIO AFM equipment (USA) was used to perform the scanning.
3.9 Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX)
To determine the primary elements and chemical combinations on the surface of the nanocellulose particles, this analytical technique focuses on elemental analysis using X-ray excitation. The summary of several compounds and elements, including Ni, Be, Ti, Zn, C, O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, Ag, P, Cl, K, Ca, and S, is distributed. The model Jeol 6390LA scanning electron microscope was characterized (Table 1).
Forest residues
Extraction technique
Properties
Reference
A. mangium (wood)
Pulping: 17% active alkali, 170°C, 3.5 h. Bleaching: DEDED (chlorine dioxide-alkali extraction-chlorine dioxide-alkali extraction-chlorine dioxide). Hydrolysis: 64% (w/w) H2SO4, 45°C, 40 min. Dialysis and 25 min sonication.
Length range: 152.6 to 238.4 nm, width range: 5.65 to 10.70 nm. Crystallinity: 79%
Pre-treatment: 7.5% (w/w) NaOH, 90 min and 60% (v/v) acetic acid, 180°C, 90 min. Bleaching: 2% (w/w) NaOH, room temperature overnight. Acetate buffer and 1.7% (w/w) of NaClO2, 70°C, 2 h. Acid hydrolysis: 64% (w/w) H2SO4, 45°C, 45 min. Dialysis 7 days, ultrasonication 3 min.
Smaller and more homogeneous size (aprx. 300 nm and PDI < 0.2) High crystallinity index: 84%.
Alkaline Pre-treatment: 17% (w/v) NaOH, 170°C, 90 min. Bleaching: NaClO and acetic acid, 70–80°C, 30 min. NaOH, 30 min. Acid hydrolysis: 64% (w/w) H2SO4, 45°C for 45 min.
Higher degree of crystallinity and higher yield of CNCs about 86.96% and 22% respectively
Isolation of α-cellulose: 3.5% (v/v) HNO3, 90°C, 2 h. NaOH and Na2SO3, 2% (w/v) each, 50°C, 1 h. Water and 3.5% (w/v) NaClO. 17.5% (w/v) NaOH, 80°C, 30 min. Acid hydrolysis: 2.5 N HCl, 15 min.
Particle size distribution 1117.4 nm, pH 6.88, ash contents ±0.0584%, moisture content 36%, loss on drying 4.59%.
Preparation of MCC: Oxygen, ozone, peroxide for bleaching and 2.5 M HCl, (105 ± 2)°C, 15 min for acid hydrolysis. Preparation of NCC: 4-acetamido-TEMPO and sodium bromide, 10% (w/v) NaClO, 30°C for 2 h. Sonication 30 min.
High dispersion stability with yields of 93%, Decomposition temperatures: 200°C. Average length: 122 Average width: 6 nm, Crystallinity: 72%
Pulping: 23% (w/v) NaOH and 0.1% anthraquinone, 160°C, 2 h. Bleaching: NaClO2 and 10% (v/v) acetic acid, 85°C, 2 h. 17.5% (w/v) NaOH, 80°C, 1 h. Acid hydrolysis: 2.5 N HCl, 100°C, 30 min.
Higher Tensile strength Fiber length: 0.47 mm Crystallinity index (%):78.00
Softwood forest residues [woody chips, branches, and pine needles]
Alkaline treatment: 4.5% (w/v) NaOH, 80°C, 2 h. Bleaching treatment: Mixture of 2 M acetate buffer, 1.7% (w/v) aqueous chlorite and water, 80°C, 4 h. Acid hydrolysis: 65% (w/w) H2SO4, 45°C, 40 min. Dialysis 1 week and ultrasonication 10 min.
Gravimetric yield of over 13%. Higher crystallinity Higher thermal stability
4. Versatile applications of nature-inspired nano cellulose
While nature-inspired nano cellulose materials hold great promise in these applications, challenges remain in terms of scalability, cost-effectiveness, and standardization of production methods. Additionally, ensuring compatibility with existing recycling and composting systems is crucial for widespread adoption. The integration of nature-inspired nano cellulose materials in barrier coatings and biodegradable packaging solutions presents a transformative pathway for the packaging industry [62, 63]. These applications not only enhance product preservation and consumer experience but also contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future by reducing plastic waste and promoting circular economy principles. Continued research and development in this field are essential to fully unlock the potential of nature-inspired nano cellulose in addressing the evolving needs of modern packaging, innovative capacitors, and batteries, advanced drug delivery systems, efficient water filtration materials, and new sensing devices as showed in Figure 5 [64, 65].
Figure 5.
Applications for nature-inspired nano cellulose materials.
4.1 Barrier coatings and biodegradable packaging
Nature-inspired nano cellulose materials have demonstrated exceptional potential in revolutionizing packaging technologies by offering both barrier coatings for extending shelf life and innovative solutions for biodegradable and compostable packaging. These applications address critical challenges in the packaging industry, such as food preservation, environmental sustainability, and reduced plastic waste.
4.1.1 Barrier coatings to enhance packaging shelf life
A natural contender for extending the shelf life of many packaged items is nano cellulose, which has outstanding barrier characteristics against gases, moisture, and other external pollutants. Food waste can be decreased, and sustainable consumption encouraged by using nano cellulose as a barrier layer to dramatically extend the freshness and quality of perishable goods.
4.1.1.1 Benefits
Improved gas and moisture barrier properties, minimizing the entry of oxygen and water vapor.
Enhanced protection against flavor and aroma loss, maintaining product quality.
extended shelf life due to increased resistance to external pollutants.
fewer synthetic barrier materials are used, enhancing environmental sustainability.
4.1.1.2 Applications
Fresh produce packaging (fruits, vegetables, herbs) to prevent spoilage and dehydration.
Dairy and meat products packaging to preserve freshness and prevent bacterial growth.
Snack foods and confectionery packaging to maintain crunchiness and flavor.
Lightweight, strength and mimicking nature’s strength, nature inspired nano cellulose provides high strength-to-weight ratio, ideal for aircraft parts and bio-based composites. Derived from biomass like wood or plant waste, it promotes a circular economy and reduces environmental impact. It is safe for use in medical applications like wound dressings and drug delivery systems. Blocks moisture, oil, and gases, making it valuable for food packaging and protective coatings. Versatile modification allows tuning for specific applications like filtration, biosensing, and catalytic supports. Scalable production from various sources ensures cost-effectiveness and widespread accessibility. Enhances energy efficiency in buildings and materials due to its low thermal conductivity. Certain compositions offer inherent flame resistance, improving safety in construction and transportation. Adjustable pore size facilitates selective filtration, purification, and controlled release applications. Also, Paves the way for replacing petroleum-based materials with sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives.
4.1.2 Biodegradable and compostable packaging solutions
Biodegradable and compostable packaging options have drawn a lot of attention in response to the growing worries about plastic pollution and its effects on the environment. Given that it can be produced from renewable resources, exhibits biodegradability, and has a smaller environmental impact than traditional plastic packaging materials, nature-inspired nano cellulose presents an attractive option.
4.1.2.1 Benefits
Renewable and sustainable material sources, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
Biodegradable and compostable, minimizing long-term environmental impact.
Reducing marine pollution and plastic waste.
Possibility of individualized mechanical characteristics and structural layouts.
4.1.2.2 Applications
Cutlery and utensils for one-time use that break down after being used.
Disposable cups and takeaway containers for food and beverages.
Containers for bakery goods, snacks, and dry goods.
Personal care product packaging, such as shampoo and soap.
4.2 Functional nanocomposites applications of nature-inspired nano cellulose
Nature-inspired nano cellulose has emerged as a remarkable candidate for enhancing the performance of polymer composites, offering a wide array of mechanical, thermal, and electrical enhancements [66]. The integration of nano cellulose into polymer matrices imparts unique properties that open up innovative applications in various industries. This section explores the multifaceted applications of nano cellulose as a reinforcement in polymer composites, highlighting its contributions to mechanical strength, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity [67, 68]. While significant advancements have been made in the development of nano cellulose-based functional nanocomposites, ongoing research aims to further optimize dispersion techniques, tailor surface modifications, and explore novel polymer/nano cellulose combinations. These efforts will likely lead to even more diverse and advanced applications in fields such as smart materials, 3D printing, and multifunctional coatings [69]. The incorporation of nature-inspired nano cellulose into polymer composites for mechanical, thermal, and electrical enhancements holds immense promise for a wide range of applications. By harnessing the remarkable properties of nano cellulose, researchers and industries are driving innovation toward sustainable and high-performance materials that address contemporary challenges and pave the way for a more efficient and environmentally conscious future.
4.2.1 Nano cellulose reinforcement in polymer composites
Nano cellulose, due to its exceptional mechanical properties and abundant surface functionalities, has gained attention as an effective reinforcement material in polymer composites. By dispersing nano cellulose within a polymer matrix, these composites exhibit enhanced mechanical strength, stiffness, and durability compared to their neat polymer counterparts [70]. Nano cellulose’s complex network structure has a synergistic effect that distributes and absorbs stress, enhancing the composite’s overall mechanical performance [71].
4.2.2 Mechanical enhancements
The mechanical characteristics of polymer matrices are significantly enhanced by adding nanocellulose. Enhancing the strength and toughness of composite materials are nanocellulose fibers, which have a high aspect ratio and exceptional tensile strength [72, 73]. This reinforcement is especially useful in sectors that demand materials that are low weight but nevertheless durable, such as athletic products, aircraft constructions, and automotive components [74, 75, 76].
4.2.3 Thermal enhancements
Nano cellulose’s low thermal expansion coefficient and high thermal stability make it a valuable component for enhancing the thermal performance of polymer composites. By integrating nanocellulose, it is possible to lessen the thermal expansion mismatch between the polymer and other materials, potentially reducing warping or cracking due to temperature changes. This is helpful for applications like electronic packaging, thermal insulation, and flame-resistant materials where thermal stability is important.
4.2.4 Electrical enhancements
Nano cellulose can be used into polymer composites to add electrical conductivity because of its special electrical characteristics, including its high surface area and capacity to carry charges. By adjusting the nanocellulose quantity and dispersion within the polymer matrix, this conductivity can be adjusted. These conductive composites are used in wearable technology, flexible electronics, sensors, and electromagnetic interference shielding.
4.2.5 Environmental benefits
The use of nature-inspired nano cellulose as a reinforcement in polymer composites aligns with sustainability goals. Nano cellulose is derived from renewable sources and is biodegradable, making it an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic reinforcements. The reduced reliance on fossil-based materials contributes to a more environmentally responsible approach to composite manufacturing.
4.3 Biomedical applications of nature-inspired nano cellulose
Nanocellulose materials that are inspired by nature have shown incredible promise in the field of biomedicine, providing ground-breaking approaches to drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering [77]. Nanocellulose-based materials have distinctive features that make them ideal candidates for many biomedical applications, drawing inspiration from the intricate architectures present in natural systems [78]. There are obstacles to overcome despite the apparent potential of nature-inspired nanocellulose materials in biomedical applications. In order to move these materials from the laboratory to clinical practice, it is essential to ensure batch-to-batch consistency, maximize scalability, and obtain regulatory approvals. To ensure patient safety, a thorough assessment of the long-term biocompatibility and degrading behavior of nanocellulose-based materials is required [79]. Nano cellulose materials with natural inspirations have opened up new avenues for biomedical uses. Nano cellulose-based materials provide inventive solutions that take advantage of their special qualities and biomimetic traits, including adaptable drug delivery carriers, wound healing assistance, and tissue engineering [80]. These substances have the potential to revolutionize how we approach healthcare and regenerative medicine as research develops, leading to better patient outcomes and quality of life.
4.3.1 Drug delivery carriers
Materials made of nanocellulose have shown promise as regulated and precise medication delivery systems. Their large surface area, adaptable surface chemistry, and biocompatibility make it possible for medicinal substances to be loaded and released quickly. Numerous medications, including hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances, proteins, and nucleic acids, can be enclosed in nanocellulose. Nano cellulose’s porosity structure permits continuous and regulated medication release, reducing adverse effects and improving therapeutic results. Precision medicine techniques are made possible by the surface modification of nanocellulose with targeting ligands, which increases its specificity to cell types or regions.
4.3.2 Wound healing materials
Wound dressings made of nano cellulose have drawn attention because of their outstanding abilities to speed up the healing process. These substances have a great capacity to store water and can keep a wound wet, which promotes cell migration, proliferation, and tissue regeneration. Nano cellulose dressings also possess antibacterial qualities, which can aid in the healing process and help prevent infections. Nanocellulose wound dressings resemble the extracellular matrix of tissues to give the wound mechanical support and can be customized for various wound types and stages.
4.3.3 Tissue engineering scaffolds for regenerative medicine
Nano cellulose scaffolds are essential for tissue engineering because they provide a three-dimensional environment for cell adhesion, growth, and differentiation. These scaffolds offer a favorable environment for tissue regeneration because they closely mirror the structural design of tissues and organs. The mechanical properties of nano cellulose can be modified to correspond to those of particular tissues, ensuring optimal mechanical support throughout the healing process. Nanocellulose scaffolds are excellent candidates for applications like bone, cartilage, and nerve tissue engineering because they can direct cell behavior and encourage tissue creation through surface functionalization and the insertion of bioactive chemicals.
4.4 Water purification and filtration of nature-inspired nano cellulose
Nature-inspired nano cellulose materials have shown promise in tackling water filtration and purification issues [81]. They are successful in eliminating impurities and raising the quality of the water due to their special characteristics.
4.4.1 Adsorbent materials for heavy metals and pollutant removal
Nano cellulose-based adsorbents are ideal for removing heavy metals and other contaminants from water sources because they have a large surface area and a lot of binding sites. Lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic can be effectively removed thanks to their natural affinity for metal ions. This application helps to protect public health and lessen the negative effects of industrial activity on the environment.
4.4.2 Microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes
To precisely separate particles, bacteria, and macromolecules from water, nanocellulose materials can be designed into microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes. These membranes can be functionalized to increase selectivity and permeability and have adjustable pore diameters. Their use in water treatment processes aids in the removal of suspended solids, bacteria, viruses, and other impurities, yielding cleaner and safer water resources.
4.4.3 Enhanced adsorption and filtration performance
The hierarchical structure of nano cellulose materials, reminiscent of natural systems, allows for tailored modification and functionalization. This flexibility enables the design of materials with enhanced adsorption capacities and filtration efficiencies. By optimizing surface chemistry and morphology, researchers can fine-tune the materials’ performance for specific water treatment needs.
4.4.4 Sustainable water management
Incorporating nano cellulose-based materials into water purification and filtration technologies aligns with sustainability goals. These materials are derived from renewable resources and can be produced using eco-friendly processes, reducing the overall environmental impact of water treatment systems. The application of nature-inspired nano cellulose materials in water purification and filtration highlights their potential to contribute to cleaner and safer water sources. As ongoing research continues to advance these materials, their role in addressing global water challenges becomes increasingly significant. Whether through adsorption, membrane filtration, or tailored modifications, nano cellulose materials offer innovative solutions for sustainable water management and environmental protection [82]. Materials made of nanocellulose that are inspired by nature are useful for environmental cleanup following disasters or industrial accidents that taint water sources. Their effective adsorption and filtering abilities facilitate the quick removal of contaminants, assisting in ecosystem restoration and aquatic life preservation.
4.5 Sustainable energy solutions of nature-inspired nano cellulose
The performance of flexible electronics, energy storage devices, batteries, and capacitors has been significantly improved by nature-inspired nano cellulose, which has emerged as a promising contender for different sustainable energy solutions [83]. Nano cellulose’s special qualities, such as its large surface area, mechanical toughness, and ion conductivity, make it a desirable material for developing energy innovations [84].
4.5.1 Nano cellulose in flexible electronics
Materials that are not only lightweight and flexible but also ecologically benign are needed for flexible and wearable electronics. Nano cellulose, which is made from renewable resources, completely satisfies these requirements.
The creation of wearable health monitoring devices, smart textiles, and flexible displays is made possible by the incorporation of nanocellulose-based conductive inks and films into flexible circuitry and sensors.
Its biocompatibility and non-toxicity also make it appropriate for sensors and other implantable medical technology.
4.5.2 Energy storage devices
Nano cellulose’s porosity and large surface area provide an excellent platform for designing high-performance energy storage devices such as supercapacitors.
Nano cellulose-based electrodes exhibit improved charge storage capabilities, enhancing energy density and power density of supercapacitors.
Its inherent ability to absorb and retain electrolytes contributes to the overall performance and stability of the devices.
4.5.3 Enhancing battery performance
Incorporating nano cellulose into battery electrodes can significantly enhance their performance by improving ion diffusion and electron transport.
Nano cellulose’s three-dimensional network structure can facilitate efficient ion and electron transfer, leading to faster charging and discharging rates.
Enhanced conductivity and mechanical stability can contribute to prolonged cycle life and overall battery longevity.
4.5.4 Capacitors with nano cellulose
Nano cellulose-based dielectric materials can be utilized in capacitors to enhance energy storage efficiency and stability.
These materials can increase the energy density of capacitors while maintaining low levels of energy loss (dielectric loss).
The eco-friendly and sustainable nature of nano cellulose aligns well with the growing demand for green energy solutions.
The incorporation of nanocellulose materials derived from nature into sustainable energy solutions highlights the significance of materials science in addressing the need for cleaner and more effective energy technologies on a worldwide scale [85, 86]. We may anticipate new developments as this field of study develops that take advantage of the remarkable qualities of nano cellulose, providing a greener and more sustainable energy future [87, 88].
The search for nature-inspired nanocellulose materials, improvements in manufacturing processes, and a wide range of uses is an ongoing adventure that offers both thrilling possibilities and difficult obstacles. The trajectory of research and innovation in this discipline is likely to be shaped by several future objectives and obstacles as the field matures.
Nanocellulose qualities, like mechanical strength, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity, will likely be the subject of future research that aims to be more precisely tailored to satisfy the needs of certain applications.
The development of precise modification techniques, including surface functionalization and composite formulations, will enable fine-tuning of these properties.
5.1 Emerging trends in nano cellulose research
Several new trends that are emerging are influencing the direction that nanocellulose research will take as it continues to develop. Researchers are concentrating on creating unique nano cellulose variants with specialized features for certain applications, such as cellulose nanocrystals and cellulose nanofibrils. Techniques for surface functionalization and modification are becoming more popular to increase compatibility with various matrices and boost performance. Additionally, multidisciplinary partnerships between engineers, biotechnologists, and material scientists are increasingly widespread, resulting in ground-breaking discoveries and multifunctional materials. By combining nanocellulose with other cutting-edge materials like graphene and nanoparticles, new opportunities for synergistic effects and improved functionality are becoming possible. To develop materials with superior mechanical characteristics and self-healing capacities, efforts are also focused on comprehending and imitating nature’s hierarchical structures. Another intriguing area that shows promise for the future is investigating the possibilities of nanocellulose in the realm of nanomedicine, including targeted medication delivery and tissue engineering.
5.2 Addressing scalability and cost-effectiveness
Although nano cellulose has great potential, scaling and cost-effectiveness issues make it difficult to use on a large scale. Large-scale manufacturing of nano cellulose is economically difficult since it frequently includes energy-intensive processes and specialized equipment. To increase sustainability and lower costs, researchers are actively striving to improve production techniques, create more energy-efficient processes, and investigate the use of waste streams as feedstock. Production expansion is still a top aim as long as constant quality and minimal environmental impact are maintained. To create affordable and scalable processes for producing nanocellulose, collaboration between government, business, and academia is essential. Additionally, investigating bioengineering techniques to increase cellulose yield in plants or microorganisms may provide creative ideas to get around scalability obstacles.
5.3 Environmental considerations and life cycle analysis
Addressing the environmental impact of nano cellulose production and use is of utmost importance as the demand for sustainable materials rises. To examine the entire environmental impact of nano cellulose materials and pinpoint any potential problem areas in their manufacturing, use, and disposal, thorough life cycle assessments (LCAs) must be carried out. To lessen the usage of harsh chemicals and energy-intensive stages, researchers are actively investigating greener and more environmentally friendly extraction technologies, such as enzyme-assisted processes. For nanocellulose-based goods, recycling and circular economy strategies are being researched to reduce waste generation and advance resource efficiency. For responsible development, it is also essential to comprehend the potential environmental dangers connected to nanocellulose materials, such as their behavior in aquatic systems and potential ecotoxicity. To ensure the safe and sustainable usage of nanocellulose across a range of applications, regulatory frameworks and guidelines may need to be established.
5.4 Holistic approaches and collaborative initiatives
A comprehensive strategy that incorporates scientific research, engineering innovation, commercial viability, and environmental stewardship is needed to address the issues and realize the full potential of nano cellulose materials. Knowledge exchange, technology transfer, and the creation of standardized protocols can be facilitated by collaborative projects involving academia, business, governmental organizations, and non-governmental organizations. Openly exchanging data, processes, and best practices can hasten development and reduce effort duplication. International partnerships can promote a global perspective on research into nanocellulose by allowing the sharing of various perspectives and experiences from various places. The multidisciplinary nature of nano cellulose research necessitates global collaboration and knowledge exchange among scientists, engineers, and stakeholders from different regions. Open-access platforms, conferences, and research networks will play a crucial role in facilitating collaboration and accelerating advancements. In conclusion, the future of nano cellulose materials holds great promise, with emerging trends pushing the boundaries of possibilities. Addressing challenges related to scalability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability is essential for unlocking the full potential of these nature-inspired materials and realizing their transformative impact across various industries. By adopting a multidisciplinary and collaborative approach, researchers and stakeholders can drive innovation and shape a more sustainable future.
From the nature perspective, the current study summarizes the available resources for extraction of nano cellulose, and their extraction methods with the potential applications. Based on the current research trend, the scientific community identified the nano cellulose and existed from forest biomass, agro waste, and ocean biomass, for many applications in Biomedical, aerospace, energy, pharmaceutical and other versatile applications in emerging areas. The economical, thermal, mechanical, morphological, and chemical properties of the nano cellulose broadened the applications where it fit. Since there is huge demand of nano cellulose materials for sustainable applications is indeed requirement for large production. Also, nano cellulose materials are increasing the economic aspects of productivity, and it is playing a very important role in environmental safety and protection.
The quest for efficient and eco-friendly nano cellulose preparation methods has been guided by nature’s ingenious processes. Biomimetic extraction techniques, mechanical disintegration, and self-assembly have all contributed to unlocking the potential of nano cellulose. Understanding the structural, mechanical, and thermal characteristics of nanocellulose materials has benefited from thorough characterization. Applications of nature-inspired nano cellulose materials include biomedical devices, textiles, water purification, and energy solutions in addition to sustainable packaging. A more sustainable and technologically advanced future is now possible thanks to the extraordinary qualities of nano cellulose, such as its mechanical strength, thermal stability, and biocompatibility.
Nanocellulose materials with natural inspiration have been instrumental in the development of sustainable energy systems. Their use in flexible electronics, energy storage systems, batteries, and capacitors has improved performance, increased the efficiency of energy storage, and made it possible to develop more ecologically friendly solutions for energy storage and utilization. In conclusion, the development of nanocellulose materials that are inspired by nature, improvements in the methods used to prepare them, and their wide range of applications highlight the incredible promise of biomimetic methods in materials research. This journey of discovery stands as a testament to the ingenuity of researchers and their commitment to harnessing nature’s wisdom to address contemporary challenges. As this field continues to evolve, we anticipate even greater strides in sustainable innovation, offering a brighter and more sustainable future for generations to come.
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Written By
Hanumanthu Jeevan Rao, Sanjay Singh, Perumalla Janaki Ramulu, Narender Singh, Thiago F. Santos, Caroliny M. Santos, Nandini Robin Nadar and Gara Dheeraj Kumar
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
