Teacher Quality and Learner Achievement in South African Schools

Abstract

Student achievement is one of the strongest indicators of future earnings. However, in South Africa, there is a continuous achievement gap between students of different races and socioeconomic classes, with more minority and low-income learners underperforming than their wealthier counterparts. These achievement inequalities are caused by several factors, but school-related ones, including curriculum changes, changes to class size, accessibility to technology, teacher preparation, and experience, have the biggest impact and are the easiest to address through policy changes. Nevertheless, teacher quality, which is an important school resource input that can influence student achievement effectively and positively, is sometimes challenging. Thus, given that there are numerous ways to gauge a teacher’s quality, this chapter examines how characteristics such as teacher experience, academic qualification, and pedagogical content knowledge contribute to learner achievement in two rural South African Universities. Research findings revealed that teachers’ experience, academic qualification, and pedagogical content knowledge contribute to teacher quality, significantly impacting learners’ academic achievement, given that these factors enhance the teacher’s ability to engage learners, effectively deliver instruction, and facilitate meaningful learning experiences.

1. Introduction

With an increasing desire for evidence-based policymaking, learner achievement has become a reliable indicator of efficacy. Repeatedly, international studies have demonstrated that the two most important factors affecting learners’ learning ability are their home environment and teachers’ effectiveness [1, 2, 3]. Similarly, studies also revealed that, to varying degrees, a teacher’s experience, educational background, beliefs, and motivations, as well as their content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and general pedagogical knowledge (actual and perceived), all impact students’ outcomes [4, 5]. Even more than demographic considerations, teachers’ quality is thought to have the greatest impact on students’ academic success [1, 6]. In South Africa, the difficulties facing the education system and the quality of teachers are less related to the quick expansion of access and more to the crippling disparities left over from apartheid and the detrimental effects these disparities have had on the standard of education [7].

Although enrolment issues in schools are universal, there are quality issues, as seen by the low retention rates, high dropout rates, and subpar student achievement [7, 8]. Thus, regarding addressing the issues of teacher supply and teacher quality, South Africa faces many of the same difficulties as other developing nations [8]. Since 1990, many teachers have increased their educational backgrounds (but not necessarily their subject-specialty certifications), suggesting that the quality of teachers, as judged by formal credentials, has greatly improved [9, 10]. Unfortunately, many other trends outweigh this one. As such, Deacon [11] claims that many South African teachers fall far short of norms and requirements in terms of content knowledge, instructional strategies, productivity, and teaching experiences. International studies claim that teacher pedagogical content knowledge [12, 13, 14, 15], teacher academic qualification [16, 17] and teacher experiences [18, 19, 20, 21] are also some of the major attributes of teacher quality that affect learner achievement. Hence, the chapter examines how characteristics such as teacher qualification, teacher experience and teacher pedagogical content knowledge contribute to learner achievement in South African schools.

2. Concept of teacher quality

A key component in creating human capital is thought to be the calibre of the teachers. Thus, for many years, the concept of teacher quality has dominated educational research and policy. While the phrase is extensively acknowledged and utilised in the literature, it lacks a clear and consistent understanding and application in the area. Furthermore, the fundamental variables linked to ‘teacher’ and ‘teaching’ quality are routinely employed interchangeably and often mistakenly [22]. As a result, despite being widely used and serving as the foundation for important policy reform in different countries worldwide, the concept of teacher quality is undermined by a lack of a clear definition and shared goals [22, 23, 24]. Besides, it is becoming more challenging to evaluate the viability and impact of policy and performance and compare systemic outcomes in this area across educational systems due to the widely divergent understandings and applications of teacher quality [22].

However, Zammit et al. [25] aver that teacher quality is often indirectly defined by the pressure that is placed on students’ outcomes or through the presence of professional attributes, including skills, knowledge, qualifications and professional learning. Although such definitions highlight some important aspects of quality teachers, they inadvertently narrowly define ‘teacher quality’ itself. Nevertheless, Blömeke et al. [5] posit that teacher quality refers to various indicators of a teacher’s qualifications, including their educational background, amount of teaching experience, participation in professional development (PD) and personality traits like self-efficacy. Similarly, Nordin and Wahlström [26] claim that curriculum and pedagogy are important factors in determining teacher quality. As such, Bradford et al. [22] argue that these factors show how difficult it is to come up with a definition for quality that everyone can agree on because one definition is almost always concerned with what is taught and the other with how it is taught. According to Gore [27], this ‘slippage’ poses difficulties because research and policy solutions sometimes aim to ‘fix’ teachers when it could be preferable to examine their practices or a combination of their practices and personalities.

Thus, in addressing the presumed distinction between ‘teacher’ and ‘teaching quality,’ Scholes et al. [23] provides an alternative viewpoint. Specifically, Scholes et al. [23] stated that it is mainly contradictory to ‘decouple’ these words because both directly impact learners, their learning, and academic achievement. As a result, arguably, the construct should marry the teachers’ fundamental principles and practices. Based on the foregoing, a quality teacher is a teacher who possesses a minimum qualification, which is a Bachelor of Education degree, is fully certified or licenced by their state, and exhibits subject-matter proficiency. In the same line of thought, teacher quality refers to the effectiveness of a teacher in the promotion of student learning and academic achievement. However, while studies [1, 2, 22, 24] show that teacher quality is important for student achievement, the most frequently asked question about teacher quality is what kind of teacher traits improve on student achievement.

3. Methodology

This study is underpinned by an interpretivist paradigm which posit that individuals construct a perception of their immediate environment by means of their engagement with the external world. A qualitative research approach and a case study design was employed because the former explores social phenomena within their natural setting and the latter offers an in-depth examination of the current phenomena, commonly referred to as the “case”. As such, the population for the study consisted of learners in selected rural schools from which two school principals, eight high school teachers, and twenty high school learners were purposively selected as the sample, making a total of thirty participants from two schools in the rural area of Eastern Cape province, South Africa. For this study, data were collected through face-to-face interviews framed by informal conversations that lasted 8–15 minutes with each participant. Data collected from participants were analysed thematically. The primary ethical concerns of the study revolved around the topics of anonymity and informed consent. The preservation of confidentiality, anonymity, and privacy was maintained, with the exception of any material pertaining to personal injury. Consequently, prior to the commencement of data collection, this condition was acknowledged and mutually consented to.

4. Results

While attempts have been made to improve learner achievement in South African high schools, arguably, there is a persistent gap between students of different races and socioeconomic groups, with minority and low-income learners outperforming their richer peers. However, it has been discovered that good teachers can mitigate the negative effects of racial and socioeconomic variations on academic achievement, and quality teachers are frequently considered a result of a good education. Thus, it is vital to understand the teachers’ characteristics that contribute to learner achievement, as revealed by the participants in a study of teacher quality in South African schools. As such, results and discussion were presented under the following sub-heading:

• Teacher experience and learner academic achievement;

• Teacher academic qualification and learner academic achievement;

• Teacher pedagogical content knowledge and learner academic achievement.

5. Teacher experience and learner academic achievement

Several theories have described the progression of teachers’ professional development from pre-service to in-service [28, 29, 30]. Nevertheless, it is asserted that, despite these attempts, the order and timing of growth stages may not be linear but instead may be variable, distinctively personal, recursive and spiralling [17, 31]. Overall, these researchers agree that a teacher’s teaching experience may be characterised and that it is likely to have an impact on their performance. For instance, a participant stated:

… the experience I have gathered over the years has helped me a lot in developing my instructional skills and strategies, and this has assisted me in engaging my learners better and motivating them successfully. Also, given that I have been teaching for almost ten years now, I am very familiar with the curriculum and standards, all of which are capable of helping me to design a more effective lesson plan, as well as thorough and good assessments (Teacher 2 – School A).

Similarly, another participant added:

… experience counts when it comes to learner achievement because the knowledge I have gathered in the last ten years plus often comes into play when I have to manage classroom dynamics and deal with learners’ behaviours to create a positive and productive learning environment. Based on these experiences, I am able to identify learners’ needs, and I am able to provide targeted support for learners who are struggling emotionally and academically (Teacher 4 – School B).

The above responses emphasise the importance of experience, which is gathered over time in providing socio-emotional and academic support to learners, which may, in turn, enhance their academic achievement. The participants’ view aligns with [32], who noted that teachers with three to 8 years of teaching were sufficient to produce favourable results. Similarly, Adeyemi’s [33] study on the influence of teachers’ teaching experience on students’ learning outcomes in Nigerian secondary schools revealed that teachers’ experiences were significant on learners’ academic achievement, as learners with teachers above 12 years and above perform better than those below 12 years of teaching experience. As such, one could conclude that teaching experience is a critical variable in students’ school learning outcomes [32, 33].

Contradictorily, in a study conducted in South Africa, deJager et al. [34] profiled the effective teaching practices of high school teachers and found out that teachers with more than 15 years of experience in the classroom performed worse than those with less experience across all six teaching areas. In a study by [35], teachers who have more than 10 years of experience are generally more effective than those who have less or no experience, but they are not more effective than those who have only 5 years of experience. This is why [36] postulate that experienced teachers are those who have been in the classroom for a long time (5 years or more), can keep students’ attention and inspire them, are skilled at managing their lessons and classrooms and can change course mid-lesson. However, Gonzalez and Gerri [37] did note that a teacher’s experience may or may not play a role in their success or failure in a subject they taught. In lieu of these debates, the subject of teachers’ experience as a factor influencing students’ academic achievement continues to attract much attention in the literature, yet results have been conflicting and ambiguous.

In education, teacher experience is likely the most important factor in personnel policies that impact current employees. It is the basis of traditional single-salary schedules; it determines teacher transfer policies prioritising seniority and is frequently seen as a major source of inequality among schools and, thus, a target for redistribution [38]. However, the fundamental premise is that efficiency is enhanced through experience. For example, another participant denotes that:

… Over the past ten-to-fifteen years, I have acquired several forms of knowledge, developed skills and refined my understanding, contribution to my work efficiency and an increase in teachers’ productivity and learners’ academic performance. For instance, through repeated practice and exposure to various scenarios, I have been able to understand and recognise different patterns in learners’ behaviour which has built my confidence in dealing with both teachers and learners and providing them with adequate feedback to enhance their growth and performance (Principal 1 – School B).

In addition, a participant added that:

The adage ‘practice makes perfect’ reflects many things in the teaching profession. For instance, the experience gathered over a number of years allows you as teachers to understand complex concepts and predict future outcomes, which contribute to how you make decisions and solve behavioural and non-behavioural problems. Over the years, I have learnt that feedback and reflections are crucial for personal and professional growth. As a result, I am able to evaluate my student performance and mine to identify areas for improvement and develop strategies to address the spotted weaknesses. These gathered experiences also assist me [teacher] prioritise tasks, setting realistic goals, and balancing competing demands (Teacher 2- School B).

The participants’ responses confirmed that experiences gathered over several years play a vital role in enhancing efficiency and learning outcomes among learners. As such, repeated practices, two-way feedback mechanisms and critical self-reflection about what works and what does not are some of the many ways through which teachers gather experiences capable of contributing to learner achievement. In line with the above assertion, numerous studies [39, 40] show that a teacher’s experience affects both teacher’s and learners’ achievement. As such, Boyd et al. [40] believed that teachers with wider classroom experience would produce learners with high academic achievements. Similarly, Agharuwhe’s [41] study revealed that good teachers boost students’ academic achievement, and their years of experience positively correlate with their efficacy.

Furthermore, Boyd et al. [40] assert that the first 4 or 5 years are when teachers improve, but they also note that this is only an average, and some less experienced teachers improve considerably quicker than others. For instance, Jacob [42] asserts that: ‘The average teacher is at his or her worst during the first year in the classroom, gets better in the second year, a little better in the third year, and then never gets any better after that.’ A participant adds:

… sometimes you can tell that some of our new teachers are not too good at managing the classroom, which sometimes affects the way we learn when they are teaching us [students]. Because of this, my friends and I feel less confident in asking questions because you can tell that they usually do not welcome questions, and even when they do, they do not address the question for clarity (Student 4 – School A).

It is obvious from the above assertion that a teacher’s in-or-lack of experience has a negative bearing on teaching and learning. In line with the above assertion, a participant added:

… a noticeable way to identify a teacher with little or no experience is through how they manage their classroom and their engagement with learners, which are most common among our new and young recruits. Even though they are zealous and motivated to stand in front of the learners in their first 1-3 years, their teaching styles, communication ability and approach to behavioural issues in class sometimes hinder their learners’ learning and success (Principal 1-School A).

From the above responses, it is evident that bad teaching habits, indulgent classroom management style and poor communication are some of the attributes of less experienced teachers that may lead to students’ lack of trust in asking for teachers’ guidance and instructions, which could, in turn, result in learners lower academic performance. However, it is vital to note that less-experienced teachers can still be effective if they are willing to learn and improve on their skills given that experience may be gathered over many years through repeated practice and dedication. Corroborating the above findings, the assertion that teacher quality significantly increases after the first few years in the field is backed up by much evidence [19, 31, 32, 42, 43, 44, 45]. In related studies, Rivkin et al. [32] demonstrated that students of more experienced teachers (those with more than 3 years of experience) performed better than those of less experienced teachers. As a result, given that experienced teachers have a deeper comprehension of the subject matter and effective teaching techniques, they employ a greater range of tactics and have access to a wealthier knowledge background. This makes them more seasoned teachers who are more effective with students and can offer insight and ideas to the teaching and learning process.

6. Teacher’s academic qualification and learners’ academic achievement

The degree of education of the teachers is measured in this chapter as their qualifications. That is the highest certification that any subject teachers have, which is divided into categories based on the highest degree that the teachers have earned, such as a certificate, diploma, bachelor’s, honours, master’s or doctorate. Thus, Zuzovsky [46] posits that certified teachers are those who have completed authorised teacher education programmes. As such, these teachers must have also completed an induction programme or passed a national certification examination to be licenced [46, 47]. Also, Filgona and Sakiyo [48] posited that a teacher’s qualification could be considered their certification. Furthermore, Filgona and Sakiyo [48] emphasised this viewpoint by claiming that certification gauges a teacher’s qualifications that incorporate several facets of subject-specific knowledge regarding teaching and learning. As such, Wallace and Casian et al. [49, 50] argue that teachers’ qualifications are regarded an important catalyst for the improvement of the school setting, with teachers considered the primary source used in school development, as well as students’ academic growth, which are sources that aid knowledge and changes. For instance, a participant stated that:

… teacher qualification really plays a significant role in shaping the learning experiences of students and creating an environment that promotes success because teachers with high qualifications in their subject areas can teach concepts, deepen content understanding and provide accurate information to their learners. For instance, I cannot compare what I learnt during my master’s degree to what I knew when I had just finished my bachelor’s degree – all I learnt during my master’s degree has contributed to the way I help my learners in developing critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, and this is evident in their performance in the National Senior Certificate Examination (Teacher 2- School A).

Similarly, another participant added:

… as a mathematics teacher with only a first-degree qualification, I believe that an advanced degree, such as a master’s degree or a doctorate, will make a difference in my practice and my learners’ academic achievement. This is because advanced degrees - through several action research conducted - expose you [teachers] to various instructional strategies that you can employ in catering to learners with different learning styles and needs. This is what some of my colleagues who are currently doing their master’s degree would say [L.O.L] (Teacher 3-School B).

The participant’s findings revealed the importance of an advanced degree and its possible contribution to the teacher’s and learners’ growth, given that teachers who strive for high qualifications open doors to a wide range of educational opportunities and resources. As such, they can assist their learners and colleagues using the knowledge acquired from different research opportunities and mentorship programmes. This resonates with the findings from the study of [51], who investigated the relationship between teacher education, certification and also student outcomes and concluded that there is a link between school productivity and the qualification of teachers.

Similarly, Mayer et al. and Ingersoll [51, 52] indicated that high school-level teachers’ credentials might result in high learners’ academic performance and that public high school teachers who have degrees in education, as well as certification, may be viewed as having the ability to improve on learners’ academic performance. However, Ingersoll [52] submits that the three levels of analysis that determine teacher qualification to improve on learners’ academic performance include the teaching experience of the teacher with a standard code of conduct, the size of the class and the level of learners. These factors all impact high school-level teachers who aim to teach learners to get better scores in-class work and improved on grades, which leads to an improved completion rate [52]. For instance, a participant posits:

I do not know the qualification held by most of my teachers, but I know that I love attending some classes more than others because of how the teacher explains and makes the topics simple. This alone is a motivation for me, and since my grade 11, I have been seeing that my results are better in that subject, and I am hoping for the best during my matric examination (Learner 5- School A).

In addition, a participant avers:

Our learners greatly benefit from teachers with advanced degrees, such as master’s and doctorate degrees. For instance, our teachers with an advanced degree in a subject-specific discipline, such as mathematics, are more effective at teaching mathematics than teachers with an entry degree, such as a bachelor’s and/or postgraduate certificate degree - this is evident in learners’ performance both in the internal and external examinations. Even teachers with minimum entry qualifications also benefit from those who have advanced degrees as they go to them for group discussion or clarity about some difficult concepts. (Principal 1- School A).

Participants’ responses revealed that learners’ learnt best from teachers with advanced degrees, which is evident in their academic performance, both in the internal and external examinations. This is why Casian et al. [50] argued that the students who perform well are taught by highly educated and experienced teachers who have effective classroom management and material delivery methodologies, while unqualified teachers teach the students who fail in both external and internal examinations. Thus, the participant’s responses corroborate those of [39], who argued that master’s degree-holding high school teachers were superior to those without advanced degrees in terms of raising student achievement. Similarly, Darling-Hammond et al. [1] confirm the importance of having a highly trained, competent teacher in the classroom. In addition, other studies such as [20, 53, 54, 55] revealed that learners taught by teachers with advanced degrees performed significantly better than their counterparts with first degrees. However, there is still a shred of mixed evidence in the literature on the impact of teacher qualification on learner achievement.

Nonetheless, Barley [56] argued that the entry connected to school productivity, learner achievement and quality education is founded on the qualification of teachers and their professional qualifications. As such, Korthagen [57] posits that different nations have varying standards for the education and preparation of teachers. For Instance, in the South African context, there are two routes to becoming a teacher. According to the [58], a four-year Bachelor of Education degree (B.Ed.) or a three- or four-year Bachelor’s degree followed by a one-year Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) are the two options you have for your path to becoming a teacher. Both paths result in designation as a professionally trained teacher after they are finished, after which everyone must register with the South African Council for Educators (SACE) [58].

Numerous studies have looked at the connections between teachers’ highest degrees and achievement among students and found a positive correlation between teacher qualifications and learners’ academic achievement [38, 59, 60, 61, 62]. For instance, Betts et al.’s [59] research indicated a favourable correlation between students’ achievement and teachers’ highest level of education. This is evident in a participant’s response as stated:

… my mathematics teacher recently got her doctorate, and she is still young; this is an encouragement for me and my friends whenever we are studying. She said she is only turning 30 years, and we can also achieve that before that age. We really want to be like her because she is our model, and we always go to her whenever we face difficulties in mathematics and other subjects that are not even mathematics – because of her friendliness, I am beginning to get better grades in my subjects (Learner 3- School A).

Similarly, other participants add:

Within the four walls of the school, sometimes it is difficult to tell which teacher has an advanced degree and who does not, but a major distinguishing factor between both of them is sometimes the exemplifying traits such as dedication, professionalism and passion for learning – all which in turn motivate the learners to excel academically (Principal 1- School B).

From the participants’ responses, it could be deduced that teachers with advanced degrees can enhance learners’ academic performance because they act as role models, and their exposure to further studies deepens their understanding of the content, making them subject expertise in their field of study. This supports the conclusions of [63], who looked into the connection between teacher qualification and academic performance. The study results showed that teachers with higher qualifications had a stronger impact on learners’ performance in arithmetics and reading than their less qualified colleagues [63]. Similarly, other studies such as [59, 64, 65, 66] showed a positive correlation between teacher qualifications and students’ performance.

As such, Wallace [49] postulates that highly trained teachers are change agents because of their crucial role in enhancing learners’ academic achievement, which is accomplished through the efficient provision of high-quality instruction. As a result, teachers have a responsibility to help students develop the fundamental skills that are necessary for advancement. Qualified teachers should do this by assisting students in discovering their talents and effectively orienting them to their future values to meet any challenge ahead of them [67].

7. Teacher pedagogical content knowledge and learner achievement

Teaching is a complicated cognitive activity that requires applying knowledge from many different fields. Teachers who have information that is both diversified and integrated may be more capable than those who have knowledge that is both constrained and dispersed [68]. According to Hashim et al. [69], one of the traits of effective teachers is their extensive understanding of content knowledge, which is a type of specialised knowledge for teachers. According to Jacob et al. [68], all the cognitive knowledge needed to create successful teaching and learning settings is included in the pedagogical knowledge base of teachers. As a participant iterated:

For a teacher to enhance learners’ academic achievement, having a good understanding of the subject matter is very important because it assists you in breaking down complex concepts into simple and understandable explanations for your learners. By doing this, your learners are able to understand common misconceptions, and they can address more problems on their own, which automatically enhances their academic performance (Teacher 1- School A).

Also, another participant buttresses the point as follows:

… a teacher with good pedagogical content knowledge assists learners in addressing misconceptions that serve as stumbling blocks to learners’ achievement. Good content knowledge, combined with high qualifications and classroom experience gathered over the years, assisted me in identifying learners’ misconceptions and the type of strategies that I could employ in rectifying those misconceptions in order to support their academic success (Teacher 3-School A).

From the above, it is evident that teachers with pedagogical content knowledge can effectively teach their subjects by using educational theories, best practices and methods. These types of teachers can create techniques to impart knowledge entertainingly by having a thorough understanding of the subject matter and how to use it. Thus, pedagogical content knowledge is seen as a continuum, with educators gaining more of it through suitable education and practice [68, 69]. Therefore, it is assumed that a teacher with more in-depth content knowledge and who is skilled at instructing an audience will benefit students more than a teacher who is ill-prepared or inexperienced [69].

According to Jacob et al. [68], one of the most crucial components of being a teacher is knowing how to orchestrate the learning environment to promote students’ grasp of an idea and to contribute to their intellectual development. This is what [70] refers to as pedagogical content knowledge. Thus, Shulman [70] defined pedagogical content knowledge as “methods of representing and formulating the subject in a way that makes it understandable to others.” Furthermore, Shulman [70] claims that PCK includes the methods of presenting and formulating the subject that make it understandable to others, an understanding of what makes learning about topics easy or difficult and the conceptions and preconceptions that students of various ages and backgrounds bring to learning those most frequently taught topics and lessons. As such, Kilic [71] stated that pedagogical content knowledge consists of four different subsets: knowledge of the curriculum, knowledge of the subject matter, knowledge of pedagogy and knowledge of learners. For example, a participant adds that:

… understanding how to engage learners with the content and a deep understanding of your subject matter allows you to design lessons and activities that are relevant and interesting. It even allows you to design an effective assessment that accurately measures learners understanding and performance. As a result, you will be able to provide constructive and timely feedback that will help learners identify the areas where they need to improve and come up with strategies for studying aimed at enhancing their academic performance (Teacher 3 – School B).

Similarly, another participant stated:

… teachers’ content knowledge has much influence on learners’ achievement because teachers without this knowledge cannot transmit anything to the learners. It is evident among our teachers here, as we see those who deeply understand the content designing learning experiences that promote higher-order thinking skills such as creativity, critical thinking and problem-solving skills. These skills have assisted our learners to be able to analyse, evaluate and apply their knowledge, and they are doing well in their academics (Principal 1 – School B).

From the participant’s responses, it could be said that teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge contributes to enhanced academic achievement, and it encompasses a teacher’s proficiency in presenting abstract topics using an interesting and interactive approach, which promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This corroborates the thought of [68], who posit that pedagogical content knowledge in the teaching and learning process incorporates the teachers’ ability to convey the subject matter’s conceptual approach, relational understanding and adaptive reasoning. Thus, teachers’ PCK is typically considered an essential precursor to cognitive engagement [72, 73]. It may be believed that teachers with high levels of PCK can design learning environments that push students while supporting their learning processes. Similarly, highly knowledgeable teachers can predict student issues and respond appropriately when they arise [74]. Therefore, Filgona et al. [75] submit that a teacher who has more in-depth subject knowledge and is skilled at instructing a particular audience will benefit students more than a teacher who is ill-prepared or inexperienced.

Thus, given that PCK involves teachers’ ability to convey the conceptual approach, relational understanding and adaptive reasoning of the subject matter in the teaching and learning process, it becomes difficult for teachers to teach if they do not fully understand PCK. However, while it is difficult to determine sharply a teacher’s PCK and its relationship to learner’s achievement, studies such as those by [15, 68] highlight the important role of PCK in classroom instruction and stress that a teacher needs to be knowledgeable about curriculum, pedagogy and their interactions. Therefore, it is believed that enhancing teachers’ PCK may enhance their teaching methods, which would consequently enhance students’ academic achievement. However, it is crucial to keep in mind that pedagogical content knowledge can be complex because it is only one component of a teacher’s professional knowledge and can vary depending on the teacher, the topic and sometimes even the teaching scenario.

8. Conclusions

There is no doubt that teacher quality affects student achievement. However, the challenge lies in identifying the qualities of effective teachers and figuring out how to measure such qualities. While it may be alluring to evaluate the quality of teachers by looking at observable characteristics like years of experience, academic degrees and pedagogical content knowledge, these characteristics do not reflect the reality of teaching, which is frequently a lonely profession in which most teacher learning is dependent on reflective practice, both reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action. However, it is based on the above-mentioned, the study concludes that a teacher’s year of experience, academic qualification and pedagogical content knowledge play an important role in classroom instructions. This is because, through years of teaching, teachers gain valuable practical knowledge and skills that enhances their effectiveness, and with higher academic qualification they are able to demonstrate a stronger command of their subject matter and pedagogical techniques to facilitate deep learning. A combination of these characteristics equips teachers with a strong foundation to deliver effective instruction, manage classrooms effectively, differentiate their instructions to meet learners’ diverse needs and ultimately contribute to learner’s academic achievement.