Enhancing Agriculture through Strategic Tillage and Soil Management: Unleashing Potential for Sustainable Farming

Abstract

Modern agriculture relies on strategic tillage and soil management to improve soil health, crop yield, and environmental impact. Innovative tillage methods reduce soil disturbance and use alternative soil management methods. Poor tillage reduces soil health and productivity. Some of them include soil erosion, runoff losses, compaction, organic matter deuteration, and nutrient losses. For long-term environmental sustainability, it is important to recognize the risks of improper tillage and implement sustainable soil management methods that reduce soil disturbances, conserve organic matter, improve soil structure, and promote soil stability. In the modern day, mechanization and industrialisation have greatly impacted soil health and ecological balance. This chapter provides a brief review of strategic tillage and soil management concepts, benefits, and challenges. It highlights the shift from traditional tillage to balanced soil management strategies. Strategic tillage improves soil health, conserves resources, decreases erosion, and ensures agricultural resilience and sustainability by limiting soil disturbance, retaining organic matter, and improving fertilizer management. The chapter also highlights aspects cover crops, precision agriculture, and organic farming for soil quality and resource efficiency. This chapter begins to explore the importance and implications of strategic tillage and soil management in modern agriculture.

1. Introduction

Globally, the agricultural, farming sectors and environmental sustainability are inherently reliant on each other. However, they have undergone significant transformations by mechanization of agriculture, which includes advancements in technology, expansion of operations, socioeconomic progress, alterations in consumption habits, and the looming ignorance of environmental deterioration. About half of Earth’s arable land is now used for farming, ranching, or grazing. However, farmers and land managers have altered agricultural ecosystems through resource extraction and wasteful use, in an effort to boost food production for local consumption and export. According to statistics, approximately 2.37 billion individuals, accounting for nearly one-third of the global population, in the 2020 had insufficient access to food due to a lack of resources [1]. Consequently, the challenges of food and nutrition insecurity, in conjunction with climate change, have emerged as the foremost critical and pressing concerns in the pursuit of the Sustainable Development Goals and the goals that are delineated in Agenda 2063.Currently, nations across the globe, both developed and developing, are confronted with pressing and interrelated challenges. These challenges pertain to the critical issues of ensuring food security for a rapidly growing population, as well as the restoration of the environment and preservation of natural resources. In an era marked by population growth, climate change, and escalating environmental concerns, the quest for sustainable agricultural practices has become imperative. At the heart of this endeavor lies scientific tillage, a crucial approach to land cultivation that strives to strike a harmonious balance between agricultural productivity and ecological preservation. Unlike traditional, indiscriminate tillage methods, scientific tillage is an evidence-based, technologically driven approach that recognizes the profound impact of human activities on the planet. By harnessing cutting-edge research and innovative techniques, scientific tillage plays a pivotal role in maintaining sustainability in agriculture, safeguarding soil health, mitigating environmental degradation, and securing the future of food production for generations to come. Consistent use of conventional tillage has been shown to degrade soil structural stability, soil biological characteristics, and nutrient storage and supply, according to growing experimental evidence [2, 3]. After the harvest of Rabi and Kharif season crops, conventional tillage entails a series of mechanical procedures to prepare the soil for the next planting season. These operations include deep plowing, deep disking, ripping, shallow-type workings, and fine seedbed preparation. Subsequently, a designated period of fallow is implemented to facilitate the capture of moisture prior to the commencement of planting the subsequent crop. This method leads to the exposure of a bare soil surface, making it susceptible to erosion caused by wind and water. Additionally, heavy rainfall can result in high compaction, necessitating the need to loosen the soil again for weed control and to enhance moisture absorption during subsequent rain events. Tillage strategies change soil physicochemical characteristics, consequently modifying crop yields [4]. The ongoing degradation of soil in arable land, caused by improper tillage practices, has a notable impact on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. This leads to a reduction in the storage of soil organic carbon (SOC), as well as a decline in crop productivity and the value of ecosystem services within agricultural systems [5]. There is a prevailing belief that the primary factor contributing to the historical depletion of soil organic carbon (SOC) in North America is soil disturbance caused by tillage. It is widely acknowledged that a significant increase in SOC sequestration can be achieved by transitioning from conventional plowing to less intensive techniques commonly referred to as conservation tillage. Soil tillage modifications bring in a change in soil structure, and therefore, a strategic method of tilling the soil according to the soil type, structure, and environmental condition can prove an effective method to combat carbon losses and other land degradation happening [6]. The soil health plays a vital role in the managing critical zone of the Earth. To effectively work toward the attainment of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it is imperative to uphold fundamental ecosystem services such as food production, plant growth, animal habitat, environmental preservation, carbon sequestration, and overall environmental sustainability. Soil degradation has been observed in various locations worldwide as a result of faulty agricultural practices and lack of knowledge about the new technologies. To effectively accomplish the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) within the designated timeframe of 2030, it may be necessary to adopt and implement more sustainable approaches to the utilization and management of soils, surpassing current practices. In this study, we demonstrate the importance of prioritizing the arena of sustainable soil use and management. Specifically, we emphasize the need to focus on the multifunctional tillage practices and their interdisciplinary linkages with major issues concerned with soil health and environment sustainability.

2. Tillage systems

Tillage systems refer to various methods and practices used in agriculture for preparing the soil for planting, managing crop residues, and controlling weeds. These systems involve different degrees of soil disturbance and manipulation to create an optimal environment for crop growth and maximize agricultural productivity. Soil organisms’ natural habitats are strongly influenced by the tillage technique used because of the profound effects that system has on the soil’s physical and chemical environment. Tillage techniques can affect the soil’s moisture, temperature, airflow, and degree of crop residue integration. The changes in soil physical conditions have both direct and indirect impacts on the climate and ecosystem dynamics (Figure 1). A significant challenge in the field of soil ecology research involves comprehending the effects of management practices on the intricate interactions among various organisms within the soil community. Soil manipulations alter the living community of soil in several ways. The microorganisms in soil play a crucial role by performing essential functions such as enhancing soil structure, facilitating nutrient cycling, and facilitating degrading of organic matter [8]. The fundamental motivation for reducing tillage intensity and to shift toward innovative methods is to lessen the financial burden of tillage in the context of commercial agriculture and to reduce the amount of soil degradation sometimes associated with excessive tillage techniques as well as the indigenous techniques of tillage that cause major problems in the soil–environment dynamics as compared to the innovative techniques (Table 1). Tillage needs vary moderately according to the crop and soil type. It may not always be necessary or desirable to till an entire field at once. Row crops including corn (Zea mays L.), sugar beets (Beta vulgaris L.), and oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) can have their tillage restricted to certain areas of the field, a method known as strip or zone tillage. The process of seedbed preparation can be limited to the specific area where the seeds will be planted, while the rest of the land may undergo a reduced or alternative form of tillage. In the non-planted regions, a soil structure with a coarse texture is deliberately maintained to enhance the process of water infiltration. In addition to the aforementioned, crop residues might be left on the soil’s surface in the spaces between rows of plants. This method is used to reduce water loss due to evaporation and to protect the soil from wind and precipitation.

Figure 1.

Tillage systems as an interwoven element in managing the agroecosystems [7].

Aspect	Traditional tillage methods	New innovative tillage techniques
Soil Disturbance	Extensive soil disturbance using plows and heavy equipment	Minimal to no soil disturbance to preserve soil structure and reduce erosion
Crop Residue Management	Crop residues are often buried or removed	Crop residues are left on the surface to improve soil health and moisture retention
Weed Control	Good initial weed control due to soil disruption	May require additional weed management strategies, but can benefit from reduced competition over time
Soil Erosion	Can lead to increased soil erosion	Reduced erosion due to better soil structure and residue cover
Organic Matter Content	May result in a decrease in organic matter over time	Helps build and maintain organic matter content in the soil
Soil Aeration	Provides initial soil aeration	May improve soil aeration over time due to increased soil health
Water Conservation	Less effective in conserving water	Better water conservation due to reduced soil disturbance and residue cover
Energy and Labor Requirements	Can be labor- and energy-intensive	Often reduces the need for intensive tillage equipment, leading to lower energy and labor requirements
Soil Health and Biodiversity	May negatively impact soil health and biodiversity	Supports soil health and promotes biodiversity due to reduced disturbance and increased organic matter
Adaptability and Challenges	Well-established and widely used, but can be environmentally challenging	May require adaptation in weed and pest management, but promotes long-term sustainability

Table 1.

A comparison between the traditional tillage practices and the innovative tillage practices, the challenges, and the constraints.

The fundamental soil tillage operations encompass either soil inversion or fragmentation. Various tillage implements are employed to carry out tillage operations, operating at specific soil depths. The process of soil inversion is most effectively executed through the utilization of a moldboard plow, whereas soil loosening can be accomplished by employing various tillage tools. Rotary cultivators are highly suitable for the purpose of soil mixing, frequently employed for the integration of soil fertilizer and organic amendments into the soil. The presence of plant residues has the potential to impede the functionality of certain tillage implements. In agricultural practices, coulters or disks are frequently employed to effectively sever or redirect crop residue from the immediate tillage zone. The occurrence of frequent or intense vehicular movement within the agricultural area can result in the compaction of the subsoil, which refers to the soil located beneath the depth at which tillage activities are performed. Subsoiling refers to the application of mechanical techniques aimed at loosening the compacted subsoil, as outlined in remedial tillage operations. To ensure optimal results, it is recommended that the subsoiling operation be conducted when the soil exhibits a friable consistency, thereby minimizing the risk of smearing. A subsoil that has been mechanically loosened exhibits a diminished strength and is susceptible to significant recompaction with relative ease.

3. Soil and tillage

The composition of soil consists of both living and nonliving components that are arranged in a vertical profile, characterized by horizontal layers or horizons. Soil serves as the habitat for a wide variety of living organisms, encompassing a multitude of microscopic species such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, and microarthropods [9]. Mechanically altering the soil’s physical condition in order to improve plant growth for human and animal food production is known as tillage. Plant nutrients and crop additives can be worked into the soil during tillage operations including bed preparation, planting, and postemergence cultivation for weed control. Tillage needs change from crop to crop, depending on things like soil composition and weather. Damages to the environment and agricultural production systems may result if the intensity of tillage is not enough for the local conditions [10]. The fundamental soil tillage operations encompass soil inversion or fragmentation, as outlined in Table 1. Various tillage tools are utilized to perform these operations, operating at specific soil depths. The process of soil inversion is most effectively executed through the utilization of a moldboard plow, whereas soil loosening can be accomplished by employing various tillage tools. Rotary cultivators are highly suitable for the purpose of soil mixing, commonly employed to incorporate soil fertilizer and organic amendments into the soil. Plant residues have the potential to impede the functionality of certain tillage implements. Coulter blades or disks are frequently employed to effectively sever or redirect crop residue from the immediate tillage area. Frequent or excessive traffic in the field can result in soil compaction in the subsoil, which refers to the soil located beneath the tillage depth. Subsoiling refers to the application of mechanical techniques to alleviate compaction in the subsoil layer (Figure 1, Table 1). For optimal subsoiling, it is recommended to conduct the operation when the soil has a water content that allows for friability, thus preventing smearing. A subsoil that has been mechanically loosened exhibits diminished strength and is susceptible to significant recompaction (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

A pictorial representation of the various tillage operations that provides an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of soil tillage and the various operations in cultivating soil using conventional, reduced and no-till tillage systems, particularly in relation to plowing [11].

4. What is strategic tillage?

Strategic tillage is an agricultural practice that involves the targeted and deliberate use of tillage operations in specific areas and at specific times to achieve specific goals. Tillage refers to the mechanical manipulation of the soil through plowing, digging, or turning it over. The concept of strategic tillage recognizes that excessive or indiscriminate tillage can have negative effects on soil health, such as soil erosion, loss of organic matter, and disruption of soil structure. Therefore, strategic tillage aims to optimize tillage operations to minimize these negative impacts while maximizing the benefits for crop production [12].

5. Historical background and evolution of strategic tillage practices

The historical development of strategic tillage practices can be categorized into distinct stages. Early agricultural practices involved manual methods such as hand digging, which gradually evolved with the introduction of animal-drawn implements, including the plow. The Industrial Revolution spurred mechanization, leading to increased tillage efficiency but also raising concerns about soil degradation. The emergence of conservation tillage in the mid-20th century marked a significant transition toward sustainable land management, highlighting the need for minimizing soil disturbance and preserving soil health. However, it was the integration of advanced technologies and ecological insights that paved the way for modern strategic tillage practices. The incorporation of precision agriculture tools, remote sensing, and geospatial data analysis enabled farmers to target tillage operations based on field variability, optimizing resource use and minimizing environmental impacts. The adoption of strategic tillage practices aligned with the principles of conservation agriculture, involving reduced tillage, conservation tillage, and minimum tillage and emphasizing soil conservation, nutrient management, and ecosystem resilience.

6. Strategies for implementing strategic tillage for soil management

6.1 Conservation tillage

The phrase “conservation tillage” can be used to describe a wide variety of approaches to soil management. As per the research conducted by Mannering and Fenster in 1983 [13], conservation tillage can be defined as a tillage system that aims to minimize soil or water loss in comparison to conventional tillage practices. This frequently entails the utilization of non-inversion tillage techniques that maintain an adequate layer of residue mulch on the surface of the soil. As per the CTIC, conservation tillage is a designated tillage and planting approach that guarantees a minimum of 30% soil surface coverage through residue after planting. Table 2 describes the various aspects of conservation tillage. The primary objective of this system is to effectively mitigate water and wind erosion and conservation of soil. In order to keep soil losses to a minimal, it is imperative that certain standards be upheld while taking into account the wind and water conditions. Alternative conservation tillage methods focus on keeping at least 1000 pounds of flat, tiny grain residue equivalent on the soil’s surface throughout the critical wind erosion period. Conservation tillage can be broadly mechanized into the following categories that hold a significant difference in soil management.

No tillage	Ridge tillage	Mulch tillage	Conventional tillage
This method relies on herbicides, cover crops, or both to keep weeds at bay and requires relatively little mechanical seedbed preparation (a narrow band where the seed is sown).	Sweeps, disk openers, coulters, or row cleaners are used to prepare ridges in the seedbed before planting. Between the ridges, the residue is left behind. Herbicides and horticulture are both effective methods for eradicating weeds (CTIC*).	The soil is disturbed prior to planting	Generally, it refers to moldboard plowing (inversion of the soil) followed by a secondary tillage operation such as disking and/or harrowing
With the exception of potential fertilizer injection, no-tillage methods involve not disturbing the soil between harvesting and planting.	From harvest to planting, only fertilizer injections are made to the soil.	Chisels, field cultivators, disks, sweeps, and blades are all examples of tillage implements. Herbicide and/or cultivation are used for weed management.	Both cultivation and the application of herbicides are viable options for weed management.

Table 2.

A comparison between the various tillage systems under conservation tillage.

^*

The Conservation Technology Information Centre (CTIC).

6.2 Reduced tillage

Targeted and suitable tillage that takes into account the specific needs of the farm is at the center of reduced tillage methods. With reduced tillage, the depth and width of the bed, field, and overall farm are all worked on with a lesser intensity. Due to their beneficial effects on soil and water conservation [14, 15] and their ability to lower the demand for fuel, equipment, and labor [16], the use of reduced tillage practices is on the rise worldwide [17]. Due to the reduced level of soil disturbance associated with reduced tillage as compared to conventional tillage, there is a limited mixing of plant residues, fertilizers, and other soil amendments into the soil. Consequently, plant roots have a tendency to proliferate primarily in the uppermost few centimeters of the soil. In addition, the uppermost layer typically exhibits higher moisture levels, lower temperatures, reduced oxidation, and increased acidity [18, 19, 20]. Under these conditions, it is observed that the organic matter content tends to exhibit a slower rate of increase or decrease in comparison to that under conventional tillage practices. In addition, the adoption of straw mulching and reduced tillage practices has a significant influence on the microenvironment of soil microorganisms, consequently affecting the overall sustainability of the environment [21].

6.3 Zero tillage

When referring to a tillage system, the term “zero tillage” is used to indicate that only traffic and seedbed preparation are performed mechanically on the soil. It is the most extreme kind of minimum tillage, a grouping of tillage systems that includes the plow–plant method and other practices that decrease the amount of soil disturbed during cultivation. Compared to conventional tillage (CT), zero tilling (ZT) causes immediate and substantial alterations to the soil pore network. Long periods of time without disturbing the soil allow biotic and abiotic processes to work together to create a stable soil structure [22]. Plant matter is allowed to remain on the soil’s surface under a zero-till system. This is crucial in cases where soil erosion prevents farming from being profitable. The observed proportionate increase in the number of medium to tiny pores generated by zero tillage has implications for the soil’s water-holding capacity. The act of plowing grassland results in the redistribution of organic matter, whereas zero-tilled sod retains its original deposit of organic matter in close proximity to the soil surface. Baeumer and Bakermans [23] discovered that water content at pF 2 changed more in association with organic matter content than with soil porosity. As a result, the top 6 cm of the zero-tilled soil had a larger water content at pF 2 than that of the plowed soil.

6.4 Minimum tillage

The minimum tillage approach is a soil conservation system that shares similarities with strip-till. Its primary objective is to minimize soil manipulation while still achieving successful crop production. No-till farming is a cultivation technique that avoids soil inversion, as opposed to intensive tillage practices that involve the use of plows to alter the soil structure. In the practice of minimum tillage, primary tillage is entirely omitted, and only a limited amount of secondary tillage is employed. The practice of minimum tillage encompasses various techniques, such as minimizing furrowing, employing organic fertilizers, utilizing biological pest control methods, and reducing reliance on chemical inputs. The application of minimum tillage (MT) in combination with organic farming has proven to be effective in promoting the improvement of the biomass of soil microbe. The microbial community structure experiences a shift toward bacteria within organic farming systems. Bacterial populations demonstrate a more prominent reaction to agricultural practices in comparison to other groups of microorganisms. This response is particularly evident when minimum tillage techniques are employed, as they contribute to the improvement of soil’s biological properties. Consequently, these practices indirectly influence the overall health of the soil [24].

7. Conventional vs. conservation: benefits of conservation tillage on soil properties

7.1 Soil physical properties

The impact of conservation tillage on soil physical properties can vary depending on several factors, including soil type, climate, prevalent cropping system, and managerial practices. Nevertheless, conservation tillage, on the whole, facilitates the enhancement of soil integrity, control of erosion, infiltration of water, conservation of moisture and organic matter content, and the reduction of soil compaction, thereby resulting in improved soil physical properties. The effects of conservation tillage on soil properties demonstrate variability, with the choice of a specific system playing a pivotal role in determining these variations. No-till (NT) systems, characterized by the maintenance of extensive surface soil coverage, have been found to induce notable alterations in soil properties, particularly within the upper few centimeters [25]. Numerous studies have indicated that the utilization of NT (no till) has led to a significant enhancement in both saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. This improvement can be attributed to either the preservation of pore continuity, as observed by Benjamin in 1993 [26], or the facilitation of water flow through a limited number of larger pores. According to Butorac [27], there is evidence indicating that soils with good drainage, a light to medium texture, and low humus content demonstrate an optimal response when exposed to conservation tillage practices, specifically no tillage. According to the research conducted by Lal et al. [28], it has been established that the adoption of NT technologies offers notable advantages in terms of mitigating soil and crop residue disturbance, regulating soil evaporation, and reducing erosion losses. It has been observed that no-till (NT) soils exhibit a greater presence of stable aggregates in the upper soil surface when compared to in tilled soils. As a result, this leads to an increased overall porosity in the NT plots. According to a study conducted by Pagliai et al. [29], minimum tillage was found to enhance the soil pore system when compared to conventional plowing. The observed improvements were characterized by an increase in the storage pores ranging from 0.5 to 50 mm, as well as an increase in the quantity of elongated transmission pores ranging from 50 to 500 mm. The researchers established a correlation between the elevated microporosity observed in minimum tillage soils and an associated rise in soil water content. Consequently, this leads to an increase in enhanced water availability for plant uptake. In a study conducted by McVay et al. [30], it was seen that the topsoil (0–10 cm) under no-till (NT) practices exhibited a greater water-holding capacity or moisture content compared to soil that had undergone plowing. Consequently, in order to enhance soil water retention and optimize water utilization efficiency (WUE), numerous scholars have suggested substituting conventional tillage practices with conservation tillage methods [31, 32].

8. Soil chemical properties

The examination of the enduring effects of conservation tillage on soil chemical properties is a subject of considerable importance to farmers, agronomists, and environmentalists. The implementation of conservation tillage practices leads to the creation of a unique soil environment, which in turn requires modified management approaches when compared to conventional tillage methods. Soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable cation levels, and total nitrogen content are among the many of the chemical parameters typically affected by the tillage techniques. Lal [33] found that distinct positive changes in chemical properties of the surface layer tend to occur when employing the no-till method compared to tilled soil. Research by Rasmussen [34] shows that plant residues on the soil’s surface contribute to an increase in organic matter inside the topsoil when no-tillage methods are used on a yearly basis. Ismail et al. [35] also documented a notable increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) levels in no-till (NT) soil when compared to in untilled soil. It has been observed that the total nitrogen loss is reduced under the no-till (NT) practice in comparison to under conventional tillage (CT). In tilled lands, the organic carbon and total nitrogen shows a crisp decrease as compared to in land with minimum tillage, which can be attributed to higher rates of mineralization and/or leaching due to the deterioration of soil structure caused by tillage practices; the soil remains unaltered Dalal [36]. The nutrient availability is effectively maintained as the organic matter content is increased in conservation tillage practices. The implementation of conservation tillage practices has been found to have a beneficial effect on the nutrient content of soil. Soils managed with conservation tillage exhibit elevated levels of essential nutrients, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). The levels of exchangeable calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) in the surface soil are notably elevated under no-till (NT) practices in comparison to under the plowed soil. Conservation tillage systems contribute to the enhancement of nutrient availability for crops by promoting improved soil organic matter content and reducing erosion.

9. Soil biological properties

Conservation tillage practices bring significant changes to soil biological properties compared to conventionally plowed soils. With minimal soil disturbance and increased crop residues left on the soil surface, conservation tillage creates a more favorable environment for soil organisms. One notable impact is the increase in microbial diversity and activity. The continuous supply of organic matter from crop residues fosters microbial growth, leading to enhanced nutrient cycling and improved decomposition of organic materials. This, in turn, boosts nutrient availability for plants, supporting healthier crop growth. Another notable change is the promotion of earthworm and macroinvertebrate activity. The presence of crop residues provides these soil organisms with a constant food source and shelter, leading to higher populations and increased soil bioturbation. The significance of earthworms and macroinvertebrates in the context of soil aeration, organic matter breakdown, and nutrient cycling cannot be overstated. These organisms are instrumental in enhancing soil structure and promoting nutrient availability. The implementation of conservation tillage practices has been found to have a positive impact on the accumulation of soil organic matter. The reduced soil disturbance and slower decomposition rates in conservation tillage systems allow organic matter to build up over time. This accumulation enhances soil biological activity and nutrient retention, promoting a more vibrant and resilient soil ecosystem. Organic carbon is a crucial component that serves as a significant energy source and effectively governs microbial activity within soil [37]. The utilization of conventional tillage techniques is known to have a significant impact on the preservation and maintenance of organic carbon (OC) levels. The primary source of soil enzymes is derived from microorganisms when compared to from plants and animals [38]. The tillage practices chosen directly and indirectly impact the biodynamics of soil. The presence of carbon in CT promotes the acceleration of soil enzyme activities, thereby contributing to the enhancement of soil biological health [39].

Moreover, conservation tillage systems foster a more significant presence of mycorrhizal fungi. The reduced disturbance and continuous presence of crop residues create favorable conditions for mycorrhizal symbiosis with plant roots. Mycorrhizal associations enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus and micronutrients, further supporting plant growth and health [40]. The utilization of computed tomography (CT) has been observed to yield positive effects and foster harmonious interactions with soil biological components. The minimal alteration of the land plays a crucial role in facilitating the establishment and development of communities, thereby fostering a harmonious equilibrium among various biological components [41, 42]. Overall, conservation tillage practices lead to a more biologically active and diverse soil ecosystem compared to conventionally plowed soils. These changes in soil biological properties contribute to improved soil health, increased nutrient availability, enhanced carbon sequestration, and, ultimately, sustainable agricultural practices.

10. Tillage as a tool for modification of soil ecology and modification in soil environment—a case study

The adoption of effective tillage practices is an essential requirement for the long-term maintenance of soil health and the optimization of crop production [43]. Conservation tillage (no tillage, reduced, and strip) increases soil microbial activity, moisture content of the soil, organic matter, stability of aggregates, cation exchange capacity, and crop production [44, 45]. The impact of tillage practices on soil chemical and physical properties, as well as the quality of fruits and crop yield, as documented by some studies conducted in watermelon and rice-maize cropping systems [46, 47]. By increasing plant water usage efficiency and decreasing irrigation water and labor use compared to traditional farming, conservation tillage, which makes use of permanent beds and strip tillage, has the potential to boost farmers’ net income and benefit–cost ratio. In their experiment, Kaisi et al. [48] discovered that tillage intensity greatly decreased soil macro- and microaggregate stability. Soil organic matter rose by 0.17% and soil accessible P by 3.8% in the topsoil (0–20 cm) when conservation tillage procedures were used instead of conventional tillage [49]. Maintaining crop residues on the top soil surface layer (full cover, no till; partial cover, strip tillage) can also reduce soil erosion and increase soil moisture content [50, 51]. Nevertheless, there is ongoing debate regarding the impact of different tillage practices, including conservation and conventional methods, on soil microorganisms and physical properties. The utilization of conservation tillage practices has been observed to result in an increase in the abundance of microorganisms in the soil crop system, though the amount of effectiveness is outlined by several ecological factors and field conditions [52, 53]. A 10-year study on the effects of different tillage methods on tomato yields indicated that conventional tillage (moldboard plow) resulted in 52% fewer nematodes than conservation strip tillage [54]. The fall measurements of nematode population composition in a strip tillage field revealed the following: 1900 bacterivorous, 40 fungivorous, 283 omnivorous, 37 predatory, and 1869 root-feeding (plant parasitic) worms. Moldboard plow soil had a total of 407 bacterivores, 67 omnivores, 14 predators, and 350 root-feeding nematodes, but no fungivores were found. However, the presence of nematodes does not always indicate that the soil is healthy or functioning well. For instance, in comparison to conventional tillage, strip tillage resulted in significant increases of total bacteria (49 percent), active bacteria (27 percent), active and total fungi (37 percent), and total nematodes (275 percent) [55]. In contrast to conventional tillage, strip tillage has been demonstrated in the same study to increase (9-fold) root-feeding nematodes (harmful to plant roots) and lower (possibly) soil nutrient content (P and NO₃⁻-N) [56]. Nematode feeding behavior and reproductive rate, both of which react rapidly to changes in the rhizosphere, may be a potent reason to this. Nematodes benefit more from conservation tillage because it promotes the growth of more beneficial microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) than conventional methods. Higher weed pressure management is a major drawback of conservation tillage approaches, especially no-tillage systems [57]. Soil bulk density and compaction (increased penetrometer resistance) can also increase in no-till conditions. By contrast, conventional tillage procedures improve soil structure by increasing air and water circulation, reducing compaction, and alleviating weed pressure, while also incorporating crop leftovers and nutrients [58]. Over relatively short periods of time, tillage causes substantial biophysical and biochemical changes. Direct effects on creatures include death, injury, or exposure to predators, in addition to the indirect effects of habitat destruction (Figure 1). Alterations in the tillage regime can impact the predominance of certain species, the number of populations, and the diversity of communities in the soil.

11. Future directions and research needs

One potential research gap in precision tillage is the optimization of tillage practices for sustainable agriculture. While precision tillage techniques have gained popularity due to their potential for reducing soil erosion, improving water infiltration, and increasing crop yields, there is still a need for further research to refine and optimize these practices.

Here are a few specific research areas within precision tillage/strategic tillage that could be explored:

1. Depth control: Investigating the optimal tillage depth for different soil types, crop rotations, and field conditions could help minimize soil disturbance while still achieving desired outcomes such as weed control and residue management. Additionally, studying the effects of varying tillage depths on soil compaction and root development could provide valuable insights for precision tillage practices.

2. Variable rate tillage: Developing algorithms and decision support tools for variable rate tillage could enhance precision in the field. This involves identifying and mapping spatial variability in soil properties, such as soil texture, organic matter content, and compaction, and using this information to prescribe varying tillage depths or intensities across the field. Evaluating the agronomic and economic impacts of variable rate tillage could help optimize its implementation.

3. Conservation tillage and cover cropping integration: Investigating the integration of precision tillage with conservation practices like cover cropping could lead to more sustainable and environmentally friendly systems. Research could focus on determining the most effective timing and methods for terminating cover crops using precision tillage techniques, as well as assessing the impacts on soil health, nutrient cycling, and weed suppression.

4. Soil quality and carbon sequestration: Examining the long-term effects of precision tillage on soil quality and carbon sequestration is essential for assessing its sustainability. Research could investigate the changes in soil organic matter content, microbial activity, soil structure, and nutrient availability under different precision tillage systems. Furthermore, exploring the potential of precision tillage to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to climate change adaptation could be a valuable area of study.

5. Economic analysis and machinery development: Assessing the economic feasibility and cost-effectiveness of precision tillage systems, including the required machinery and equipment, is crucial for adoption by farmers. Conducting economic analyses that consider the investment costs, operational expenses, and potential returns associated with precision tillage practices could provide valuable insights for farmers and policymakers. Moreover, exploring opportunities for developing and improving precision tillage machinery, such as sensors, actuators, and automation technologies, could further enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of these practices.

12. Conclusion

Throughout the centuries, tillage has been employed as a method to create a suitable seedbed for cultivating crops, as well as to manage weed growth and integrate various substances such as fertilizers, pesticides, manures, and other amendments. In the early phases, the process of converting native ecosystems through tillage played a crucial role in extracting nutrients from soil organic matter. This extraction process allowed for the utilization of naturally fertile soils to cultivate crops, thus meeting the needs of a burgeoning population with limited resources. Nevertheless, it is important to note that tillage practices have had a detrimental impact on soil organic matter and soil structure. This has resulted in an acceleration of soil erosion and the disruption of the intricate network of soil organisms [59]. In places where soil is intensively and continually farmed, the results of soil deterioration brought on by soil preparation owing to the unchecked exploitation of agricultural systems are plain to see [60].

The process of soil inversion and pulverization through repeated tillage has been found to enhance the decomposition of organic matter, thereby impacting the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. These properties are considered crucial indicators of soil quality [44]. Over the course of the last three decades, there have been significant advancements in land management systems aimed at reducing the necessity for soil tillage. Methods such as no tillage are employed to maintain plant residues on the soil surface, thereby safeguarding the soil against erosion. If crop rotation is implemented in the reduced tillage system, it appears to be economically competitive with conventional tillage. Long-term benefits to local and global ecosystems are greater with the decreased tillage approach. A slower, pulsed release of nutrients for plant uptake results from the shift in decomposition rate from a microbial to a fungal route, and crop residue retention generally has a favorable effect on soil biotic complexity. When compared to regular tillage, crop residue retention reduces CO₂ emissions to the environment and preserves the soil’s useful chemical and physical qualities for the long term. High crop productivity in traditional high-input agroecosystems is accomplished not through the breakdown of SOM, but rather by the use of synthetic fertilizers (mostly nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus). Reduced retention of nitrogen and phosphorus (N and P) fertilizers and large losses of SOM in conventionally tilled systems are major problems [61].