Abstract
The use of synthetic biology on yeasts has enhanced the production of commercially relevant chemicals, from biofuels to recombinant therapeutic proteins, to name just a few. Despite most of these advances had already been studied and described in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, during the last years the attention has turned to the use of alternative expression systems with a higher yield and quality such as non-conventional yeasts. Recently, there has been an increase in studies about non-conventional yeasts due to advantages based on their natural capacity to tolerate harsh conditions or the wide range of carbon sources they need during the generation of specific products. This chapter, therefore, aims to describe the current status of the most used non-conventional yeasts in metabolite production as well as the engineering behind them in order to optimize or regulate protein expression: Pichia pastoris, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Kluyveromyces lactis and Yarrowia lipolytica.
Keywords
- non-conventional yeasts
- bioengineering
- synthetic biology
- CRISPR-Cas9
- Golden Gate cloning
- TALENs
1. Introduction
Yeast is probably one of the oldest domesticated organisms, since it was used for beer brewing already in Sumer and Babylonia around 6000 BC [1]. Not surprisingly, yeast cells were among the first microorganisms seen after the invention of the microscope in the seventeenth century, but their recognition as a living organisms did not come until two centuries later [2]. Yeasts, as such, do not form a single taxonomic or phylogenetic group in the kingdom fungi, rather, they occur in different subdivisions belonging to
Interestingly, yeast cells can exhibit a variety of cell sizes, shapes and colors. Even individual cells from a pure strain of a single species can display morphological heterogeneity. Moreover, yeast cell size varies widely from 2 up to 50 μm in length. Many yeast species are ellipsoidal or ovoid, but other cell shapes can be also observed as in
With respect to their diversity, there are around 2000 accepted yeast species included in the Yeast Trust Database (theyeasts.org) [4]. They have been isolated from highly diverse environments such as insect guts, food products, soil, oceans and even ancient ice fields [1]. However, it seems that we have just scratched the tip of the iceberg. According to Fell’s estimation, what we have found represents only 1% of the species that might exist in nature [4].
Furthermore, yeasts as a whole are interesting because they are capable of metabolizing a wide variety of carbon sources including glucose, fructose, lactose, xylose and arabinose [3]. Besides, the metabolic activity of some yeasts can be dependent on the sugar concentration present in the medium: fermentation in high sugar concentration and aerobic respiration in low sugar concentrations (Crabtree effect) which can be advantageous in some industrial processes [3, 5].
2. Industrial applications of yeasts
Industrially, yeasts possess many attractive features that confer them some benefits in relation to bacteria such as
For these reasons, natural yeasts have been used in a lot of industrial processes. For example, in the food industry, the alcoholic fermentation of
Another important application of
On the other hand, despite
Furthermore, some of the most interesting features of NCYs are their capacity to accumulate metabolites, synthesize and secrete recombinant proteins and enzymes [12]. For instance, yeasts like
3. Use of synthetic biology in NCYs
Synthetic biology relies on the premise that a biological system can be built using a collection of previously described parts and subsystems [6]. This is achieved by standardization and modularization of useful biological parts, mechanisms and systems, or redesign the existing ones to provide new and better qualities [15]. Therefore, it is capable to define building blocks at various levels such as expression, protein and pathway levels [15]. The ability to control the dynamics at each level is important in order to establish unique and robust expression and production platforms for biomanufacturing [6]. For example, in synthetic biology-inspired therapies, the regulation of gene expression is important to determine the amount of the therapeutic and allows for accurate control over the design of synthetic cells [16].
Furthermore, with the emergence of modern genome editing tools, the synthetic biological capabilities to rewire and engineer organisms for production purposes have enabled the application of engineering efforts in non-conventional yeast of interest to industrial biotechnology [6].
This section will focus on the description of synthetic biology tools at the expression level, covering the engineering of genetic parts which include promoter, terminator and signal peptide, as well as codon optimization. In addition, available genome editing tools like CRISPR-Cas and cloning methods such as Golden Gate are also discussed. Their applications will be described in detail, later on, in Section 4.
3.1 Engineering of genetic parts
3.2 Cloning methods and genome editing tools
4. Engineering non-conventional yeasts (NCYs)
This section will discuss the application of synthetic biology tools and strategies in four of the most popular NCYs:
![](http://cdnintech.com/media/chapter/86021/1686725386/media/F1.png)
Figure 1.
Description of the non-conventional yeasts (NCYs):
Second, they have their genomes sequenced and available at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website [31] and several metabolomic and transcriptomic studies have been reported [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. This information is key when searching for new sources of BioBricks, since novel genetic parts or metabolites can be discovered under different contexts such as carbon sources or stress conditions. Third, information about regulatory associations between transcription factors (TFs) and target genes in these four species is available at the N. C. Yeastract database [38]. Last but not least, all the referred species have genome-scale metabolic models reported in the literature [39, 40, 41, 42], allowing researchers to predict metabolic fluxes, and subsequently, optimize the production of relevant compounds in these microorganisms.
4.1 Pichia pastoris
For these reasons,
On the other hand, using methanol (a flammable and toxic compound) in a large-scale fermentation process can be potentially dangerous [60]. For this reason, researchers have tried to find alternatives to overcome this limitation using different approaches such as employing orthologous promoters from related methylotrophic yeasts [58] or even engineering cis- and trans-acting elements in the P
In a more recent study, Cheng et al. used the Golden Gate cloning method to develop a versatile and easy way of assembling eukaryotic gene exons into both prokaryotic and eukaryotic plasmids in a one-step reaction [64]. Thus, this new approach enables researches to rapidly identify the optimal expression host for the production of specific proteins, overcoming some disadvantages of traditional methods to obtain intron-free eukaryotic genes (e.g. whole-gene synthesis or reverse transcription methods) which are time-consuming, expensive and complicated to operate [64].
4.2 Kluyveromyces marxianus
All these features make
In the last years, some progress in synthetic biology has been accomplished in this species; however, it is still limited compared to other NCYs such as
Interestingly, the relative strength of promoters can change depending on the carbon source provided [81]. For instance, Kumar et al. showed that the
Notably, if thermotolerance of this yeast is to be exploited when expressing heterologous proteins, it is not enough to only focus on utilizing thermostable proteins but also identifying thermotolerant promoters because promoter activity tends to decrease with elevated temperature as it was demonstrated by Yang et al. [81]. Despite the fact that lower promoter activity is observed when increasing the temperature,
Li et al. developed a one-step multigene integration system based on CRISPR-Cas9, which is capable of integrating up to three cassettes in a single, targeted genomic locus in
In 2022 Bever et al. developed a highly efficient CRISPR-Cas9 system in
4.3 Kluyveromyces lactis
Some advantages of working with
On the other hand, CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing was used by Burghardt et al. in order to increase the enzymatic production of the prebiotic fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) in
4.4 Yarrowia lipolytica
Other CRISPR-Cas9 strategies have been developed, for example, a paired sgRNA, consisting of two vectors, each containing Cas9 gene and a sgRNA cassette, was used in order to target areas upstream and downstream the start and stop codon, respectively, and allow a complete gene knockout via gene excision with a 20% of efficiency [94].
5. Future perspectives
To date, only about 1% of the yeast species found in nature have had their genomes fully characterized. Thus, it is not surprising, with the accessibility of new sequencing technologies, the complete genome analysis of many newly discovered yeast species with unique characteristics will be available. This will greatly expand the catalog of genetic parts allowing a more sensitive fine-tuning of desired economically relevant compounds and the discovery of new genes of interest. In addition, new yeast host vectors with desirable characteristics such as faster growth rates, stress-tolerance, efficient secretion systems and desired metabolic pathways will be engineered and domesticated to facilitate their use in industrial applications.
Moreover, in silico simulations will play a crucial role in the efficient design of new synthetic yeast biofactories since more accurate predictions will be made. Nevertheless, there are still limitations that have to be overcome such as the absence of gene regulatory information, lack of accurate metabolic models at genomic scale [102], or missing experimental design and testing of potential NCY biofactories. For instance, CRISPR-Cas9 still performs poorly regarding the adequate sgRNA production in NCYs. sgRNA expression is normally accomplished using RNA polymerase III (RNAP III) promoters (not well characterized in NCYs), implying more studies are needed for effective genetic engineering. Wagner and Alper suggest two approaches to overcome this issue: optimization of heterologous RNAP III promoters or the screening of native RNAP III promoters [6, 13] which are currently being tested in some NCYs such as
Finally, a quite positive outcome of the use of NCYs as biofactories is the production of industrially relevant compounds in an economical manner. Synthetic biology helps to search and engineer strains capable of utilizing cheaper substrates, including “waste products” (e.g. whey and molasses), supporting a sustainable circular economy which in the future will certainly have a more relevant role.
6. Conclusions
For several decades yeasts have proven to be of great importance for the development of modern society, contributing to industrial processes including food and pharmaceutics. In addition, the current application of synthetic biology techniques in these organisms has given them a greater potential to be used as substitutes for organisms commonly used in the industry, such as bacteria, given the benefits they present. The use of these techniques in unconventional yeasts such as
On the other hand, the engineering of genetic parts has also been developed in these unconventional yeasts. Codon optimization in
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Notes
- Currently, there is not an accepted definition of NCYs, but many scientists consider NCYs as "non-Saccharomyces" yeasts [7].
- Although initially named Pichia pastoris in the 1950s, it was then reclassified into the genus Komagataella in 1995, splitting up into the two species K. pastoris and K. phaffii [43]. Here, we still use the name P. pastoris for simplicity.