1. Introduction
Toxoplasmosis is a significant zoonosis that affects humans and warm blooded animals. The definitive hosts of parasite
In humans, clinical form of toxoplasmosis is rare in immunocompetent people, while it may leads to eye diseases, CNS or generalized infection in immunocompromissed individuals as well as interfere with the course or outcome of pregnancy. In Europe,
In animals,
In the Czech Republic, some important studies concerning
Animal | Prevalence | Assay | Reference |
Cat | 17 – 91% | SFT, CFT, MPA, IFAT | Havlik and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1966, Zastera et al. 1969, Svoboda and Svobodova 1987, Svoboda 1988 |
Dog | 15 – 58% | SFT, CFT, MPA | Havlik and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1966, Zastera et al. 1969, Svoboda and Svobodova 1987, Hejlicek et al. 1995, Hejlicek et al. 1995 |
Sheep | 4 – 77% | SFT, CFT, MPA, IHA, IFAT | Zastera et al. 1966, Zastera et al. 1969, Arnaudov et al. 1976, Kozojed et al. 1977, Hejlicek and Literak 1994c |
Goat | 20 – 86% | SFT, CFT, IFAT | Havlik and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1966, Zastera et al. 1969, Hejlicek and Literak 1994b, Literak et al. 1995, Slosarkova et al. 1999 |
Cattle | 2 – 42% | SFT | Havlík and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1969, Kozojed et al. 1977 |
Pig | 0.1 – 38% | SFT, CFT, MPA | Havlik and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1969, Kozojed et al. 1977, Hejlicek and Literak 1993, Hejlicek and Literak 1994b, Vostalova et al. 2000 |
Horse | 4 – 11% | SFT, CFT | Havlik and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1969, Kozojed et al. 1977, Hejlicek and Literak 1994a, Zastera et al. 1966 |
Gallinaceous bird | 0 – 20% | SFT | Zastera et al. 1965, Zastera et al. 1969, Kozojed et al. 1977, Literak and Hejlicek 1993 |
Water fowl | 2 – 33% | SFT | Zastera et al. 1965, Zastera et al. 1969, Literak and Hejlicek 1993 |
Rabbit | 6 – 95% | SFT, CFT | Havlik and Hubner 1958, Havlik and Hubner 1960, Zastera et al. 1969 , Kunstyr et al. 1970, Hejlicek and Literak 1994d |
In a group of game animals, a prevalence of 15% was found in wild boars by SFT (Hejlicek et al. 1997), 4 – 31% in hares by SFT or Microprecipitation in Agar (MPA) (Havlik and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1966, Vosta et al. 1981, Hejlicek et al. 1997), and 14 – 58% prevalence in wild ruminants by SFT (Havlik and Hubner 1958, Zastera et al. 1966, Hejlicek et al. 1997).
These studies were performed by one or by a combination of methods such as SFT, CFT, MPA and Indirect Hemaglutination Assay (IHA). Nowadays, these methods are less frequently used; it is preferred to use Modified Agglutination Test (MAT), and/or Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test (IFAT), and/or an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), and/or a Latex Agglutination Test (LAT). This trend is also evident from a recent review summarized worldwide prevalence of
Based on the results of examination of different groups of animals in the State Veterinary Institute Prague in years 2003 – 2006, it is evident that lethal toxoplasmosis in the Czech Republic is the most important in some species of zoo animals; while in domestic animals it was not proved (Sedlak and Bartova 2007). Contrary, the sera of cats and dogs were the most frequently examined. Insufficient attention is paid to small ruminants that can abort or have reproduction disorders due to toxoplasmosis with subsequent economic losses.
That is why during the last 10 years, our research team focused on
2. Toxoplasmosis in domestic animals
2.1. Recent data from the Czech Republic
Serological studies
During years 1995-2012, the samples of blood were collected from different groups of animals and examined for specific
In a group of domestic animals, in total 4254 animals were tested with the following number of animals used: 286 cats, 413 dogs, 547 sheep, 251 goats, 546 cattle, 551 pigs, 552 horses and 1108 poultry (217 chickens and 293 broilers, 60 turkeys, 178 geese and 360 ducks). The animals came from 2 – 14 different districts of the Czech Republic (Figure 1).
Sera of domestic animals were tested for
In a group of domestic animals,
Animal | Assay (cut-off) | Conjugate for IFAT | Producer |
Cat | IFAT (≥40) | anti-cat IgG | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Dog | IFAT (≥40) | anti-dog IgG | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Sheep | ELISA (≥50%S/P) | – | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Goat | ELISA (≥50% S/P) | – | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Cattle | ELISA (≥50% S/P) | – | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Pig | ELISA (≥50% S/P) | – | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Horse | LAT | anti-horse IgG | VMRD, Pulman, USA |
Chicken Broiler | IFAT (≥40) | anti-chicken IgG | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Turkey | IFAT (≥40) | anti-chicken IgG | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Goose | IFAT (≥40) | anti-duck IgG | KPL, USA |
Duck | IFAT (≥40) | anti-duck IgG | KPL, USA |
Animals | Assay (cut-off) | Titres or %S/P | Reference | |||
n | positive | % | ||||
Cat | 286 | 126 | 44 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 81920 | Sedlak and Bartova 2006b |
Dog | 413 | 107 | 26 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 10240 | Sedlak and Bartova 2006b |
Sheep | 547 | 325 | 59 | ELISA (50%S/P) | 50 – 200 | Bartova et al. 2009a |
Goat | 251 | 166 | 66 | ELISA (50%S/P) | 56 – 191 | Bartova et al. 2012 |
Cattle | 546 | 53 | 9.7 | ELISA (50%S/P) | 50 – 200 | Bartova et al. (unpublished) |
Pig | 551 | 198 | 36 | ELISA (50%S/P) | 50 – 337 | Bartova and Sedlak 2011 |
Horse | 552 | 125 | 23 | LAT | – | Bartova et al. 2010a |
Poultry | ||||||
Chicken | 510 | 0 | 0 | IFAT (40) | – | Bartova et al. 2009a |
Broiler | 293 | 1 | 0.3 | IFAT (40) | 40 | Bartova et al. 2009a |
Turkey | 60 | 0 | 0 | IFAT (40) | – | Bartova et al. 2009a |
Goose | 178 | 77 | 43 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 2560 | Bartova et al. 2009a |
Duck | 360 | 52 | 14 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 320 | Bartova et al. 2009a |
Experimental studies
In the Czech Republic, two experimental studies were conducted on domestic poultry.
The first study was conducted on chickens (
The second experimental study was conducted on domestic ducks (Bartova et al. 2004). Ducks were inoculated
2.2. Comparison of data obtained
Cats
Clinical signs of toxoplasmosis in cats include fever, anorexia, dyspnea, uveitis, pneumonitis and others. Kittens can develop acute toxoplasmosis and die from it. The seropositivity increases with the age of cat, indicating postnatal transmission of infection.
Dogs
Sheep
In Europe, the highest prevalence 96% was found by ELISA in Turkey (Mor and Arslan 2007), while the lowest 10% was found in Slovak Republic by SFT (Kovacova 1993). We found 59% prevalence by ELISA. In the Czech Republic, 4% – 77% prevalence was found in past years.
Based on experimental studies,
Goats
Goats appear to be more susceptible to clinical toxoplasmosis compared to other domestic animals, and even adult goats could die of acute toxoplasmosis. In the Czech Republic, toxoplasmosis was diagnosed in two Angora goat herds in South Moravia with an outbreak of abortions and births of weak kids; the goats showed also iodine deficiency (Slosarkova et al. 1999). Based on several experimental studies conducted on goats,
Cattle
Serum antibodies to
There are no confirmed reports of clinical toxoplasmosis in adult cattle. In cattle,
Pigs
Clinical manifestation of toxoplasmosis in pigs could include diarhea, encephalitis, pneumonitis, necrotic hepatitis and abortion. Surveys based on the presence of
The higher prevalence is found among pigs from small backyard operations, while the prevalence among pigs from traditional large farms and modern large-scale farms is usually lower. Attention should be paid if pork meat is consumed nearly raw or without sufficient temperature treatment.
Horses
Horses have been shown to be susceptible to
By reason that equine meat represents an important source of food in many human communities, infected equine meat could represent potential risk of
Poultry
In general, there is a different sensitivity of birds to
We found higher prevalence in water fowls (43% and 14% in goose and ducks, respectively) compared to gallinaceous poultry (0.3% in broiler; turkeys and chickens were negative). In Europe, higher prevalence 36% was found in chicken from Austria by MAT (Dubey et al. 2005), or 20% in turkeys by ELISA in Germany (Koethe et al. 2011).
3. Toxoplasmosis in game animals
3.1. Recent data from the Czech Republic
Serological. studies
In majority of game animals, the course of infection is subclinical. However, considering the high prevalence of
A total of 1618 game animals were tested, including 720 wild ruminants or ruminants living in reservations (377 red deer, 79 roe deer, 14 sika, 143 fallow deer, 105 mouflon and 2 reindeer), 565 wild boars and 333 hares. The animals came from 3 – 11 districts of the Czech Republic (Figure 1).
Sera of game animals were tested for
Animal | Conjugate for IFAT | Producer |
Wild boar | anti-swine Ig G | Sigma, Praha |
Hare | anti-rabbit Ig G | Sigma Aldrich, USA |
Red deer | anti-deer Ig G | KPL Inc. Maryland |
Sika | anti-deer Ig G | KPL Inc. Maryland |
Fallow deer | anti-deer Ig G | KPL Inc. Maryland |
Roe deer | anti-deer Ig G | KPL Inc. Maryland |
Mouflon | anti-goat Ig G | VMRD, USA |
Reindeer | anti-deer Ig G | KPL Inc. Maryland |
In a group of game animals,
Animals | Assay (cut-off) | Titres | Reference | |||
n | positive | % | ||||
Wild boar | 565 | 148 | 26 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 1280 | Bartova et al. 2006 |
Hares | 333 | 71 | 20 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 640 | Bartova et al. 2010b |
Wild ruminants | ||||||
Red deer | 377 | 169 | 45 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 640 | Bartova et al. 2007 |
Roe deer | 79 | 19 | 24 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 160 | Bartova et al. 2008 |
Sika | 14 | 7 | 50 | IFAT (40) | 80 – 320 | Bartova et al. 2009 |
Fallow deer | 143 | 24 | 17 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 160 | Bartova et al. 2010 |
Mouflon | 105 | 9 | 9 | IFAT (40) | 40 – 320 | Bartova et al. 2011 |
Reindeer | 2 | 1 | IFAT (40) | 80 | Bartova et al. 2012 |
Experimental studies
In the Czech Republic, two experimental studies were conducted on game animals.
The first study was conducted on hares (Sedlak et al. 2000a). Hares were experimentally infected with
The second study was conducted on gallinaceous game birds (Sedlak et al. 2000b). Partridges (
3.2. Comparison of data obtained
Wild. boars
In Europe, the highest seroprevalence 100% was found in wild boars from Portugal (Lopes et al. 2011b) or 44% in wild boars from Spain (Closa-Sebastia et al. 2011); while the lowest prevalence 8% was found in wild boars from Slovak Republic (Antolova et al. 2007). In the Czech Republic we found 26% prevalence by IFAT. This prevalence was higher compared to 0% – 15% prevalence found by SFT in the previous studies from the Czech Republic.
The meat of wild boars may harbour tissue cysts of
Hares
There are several reports of
Wild. ruminants
Deer are popular game animals in several countries. The meat of deer may harbour tissue cysts of
4. Toxoplasmosis in zoo animals
4.1. Recent data from the Czech Republic
Serological. studies
In a group of zoo animals, 556 animals belonging to 114 species were tested (5 species of primates, 28 species of carnivores, 8 species of perissodactyla and 73 species of artiodactyla). The animals came from 12 zoo and 4 small private exotic centres in the Czech Republic.
Sera of zoo animals were tested for
Order and family | Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test (IFAT) | |
Conjugate for IFAT | Producer of conjugate | |
Primates | ||
Cercopithecidae | anti-monkey IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Hominidae | anti-human IgG | Sevapharma, Praha |
Carnivora | ||
Canidae | anti-dog IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Felidae | anti-cat IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Hyaenidae | anti-cat IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Mustelidae | anti-cat IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Otariidae | anti-cat IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Ursidae | anti-cat IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Viveridae | anti-cat IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
Perissodactyla | ||
Equidae | anti-horse IgG | VMRD, Pullman, USA |
Artiodactyla | ||
Bovidae | anti-bovine IgG, anti-goat IgG | VMRD, Pullman, USA |
Cameliae | anti-llama IgG | VMRD, Pullman, USA |
Cervidae | anti-deer IgG | KPL, Gaithersburg, Maryland |
Suidae | anti-swine IgG | Sigma-Aldrich s.r.o., Praha |
In a group of zoo animals,
Order and Family | n | ||
Positive | % | ||
22 | 10 | 45 | |
Cercopithecidae | 11 | 2 | 18 |
Hominidae | 11 | 8 | 73 |
87 | 78 | 90 | |
Canidae | 32 | 28 | 88 |
Felidae | 41 | 38 | 93 |
Hyaenidae | 3 | 3 | |
Mustelidae | 2 | 2 | |
Otariidae | 2 | 0 | |
Ursidae | 5 | 5 | 100 |
Viveridae | 2 | 2 | |
Equidae | 46 | 15 | 33 |
401 | 90 | 22 | |
Bovidae | 265 | 53 | 20 |
Cameliae | 19 | 5 | 26 |
Cervidae | 110 | 30 | 27 |
Suidae | 7 | 2 | 29 |
4.2. Experimental studies and cases of clinical toxoplasmosis
In the Czech Republic, experimental infection was conducted on budgerigars (
Cases of clinical toxoplasmosis in the Czech Republic were recorded in nilgais (
The other cases of fatal toxoplasmosis were recorded in year 2004 in seven Pallas cats in several zoos in the Czech Republic (Sedlak and Vodicka 2005).
4.3. Comparison of data obtained
There are many reports on toxoplasmosis in zoo animals. Marsupials, New World monkeys, hares and some small ruminants belong to the most sensitive to clinic toxoplasmosis. Fatal toxoplasmosis was also recorded e.g. in captive dik-dik and Pallas cats from zoo in USA (Riemann et al. 1974; Dubey et al. 2002), in lions from a zoo in Africa (Ocholi et al. 1989) and in a Siberian tiger from a zoo in Belgium (Dorny et al. 1989). In the Czech Republic, fatal toxoplasmosis was recorded in saiga and nilgais antelopes from Prague and Chomutov zoos (Sedlak et al. 2004) and in Pallas cats (Sedlak and Vodicka 2005).
In our study, antibodies to
The potential source of
5. Further research
Further work should focus on serological studies in other animal groups that are neglected but may represent a risk of infection for humans in case of consumption of their meat or other products. Such animals include, for example, rabbits, ostriches, pigeons, pheasants and mallard ducks. In addition, rodents, wild birds and wild carnivores (foxes, marten and others) may play an important part in the circulation of
Acknowledgement
The results obtained in last 10 years were supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic (Grant No. MSM6215712402). We would like thank to R. Vodička, J. Váhala and F. Treml for their assistance in the collection of the serum samples and thank to students (V. Říhová, Z. Satková, H. Michnová, M. Syrová, M. Šíblová, H. Říhová, A. Šedivá, J. Drastíková) for their assistance with serological examinations.
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