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Department of Production and Management Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece
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1. Introduction
The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles and the explosion of the population are factors contributing toward the growing air pollution problem. Moreover, the exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Apart from the anthropogenic sources of air pollution there are natural sources as well. Natural sources related to dust from natural source, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation, the smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires, volcanic activity etc. Air pollution not only affects the air we breathe, but it also impacts the land and the water. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body’s respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. The human health effects caused by air pollution may range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes to difficulty breathing. It can also cause deaths, aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases to human beings. There are several many types of air pollutant [1,2]. These include smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect and holes in the ozone layer. The atmospheric conditions such as the wind, rain, stability affect the transportation of the air pollutant [3,4]. Furthermore, depending on the geographical location temperature, wind and weather factors, pollution is dispersed differently [5,6]. For instance, the wind and rain may effectively dilute pollution to relatively safe concentrations despite a fairly high rate of emissions. In contrast when atmospheric conditions are stable relatively low emissions can cause buildup of pollution to hazardous levels.
The quality of fuel affects diesel engine emissions (HC, CO, NOx and particulate emissions) very strongly. The fuel that is used in diesel engines is a mixture of hydrocarbons and its boiling temperature is approximately 170oC to 360oC [4]. Diesel fuel emissions composition and characteristics depend on mixture formation and combustion. In order to compare the quality of fuels the following criteria are tested: ketene rating, density, viscosity, boiling characteristics, aromatics content and sylph content. For environmental compatibility, the fuel must have low density, low content of aromatic compounds, low sylph content and high ketene rating [6,7,8].
One of the most important and renewable sources of energy is biomass. Biomass as a renewable source of energy refers to living and recently dead biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Some examples of biomass fuels are wood, crops, manure and some garbage. Biomass is a renewable energy source due to photosynthesis. Concretely, with the photosynthesis is committed the solar energy and is changed in chemical (energy). At the combustion of biomass the committed solar energy is changed in thermo while the dioxide of coal (CO2) returns in the atmosphere, while the inorganic elements that are contained in the ash, enrich the soil with nutritious elements. Nowadays, the use of biomass, covers approximately 4% of the total energy which is consumed in USA and 45% of the renewable sources of energy [9,10,11]. The most common source of biomass is the wood. For thousands of years people have burned wood for heating and cooking. Another source of biomass is our garbage that comes from plant or animal products. Moreover, various materials of plant origin, as agricultural remains (e.g. straw), material of animal origin, remains from veterinary surgeon units as well as remains of fishery and their sub products, urban waste etc. Wood waste or garbage can be burned to produce steam for making electricity or to provide heat to industries and homes. Biomass can be used for the production of liquid fuel (called biofuel) which is used for the transportation to many countries of Europe, USA etc. [12,13,14]. Bio-diesel is also produced from oily plants (soya, sunflower) animal greases, products of carcasses, and used oils. Some of biomass advantages which make it an attractive source of energy are the following:
Reduction of air pollutants. The combustion of biomass has null balance of dioxide of coal (CO2,) does not contribute in the phenomenon of green house, because the quantities of dioxide of coal (CO2,) that are released at the combustion of biomass are committed again by the plants for the creation of biomass.
Zero existence of sulphur in biomass contributes considerably in the restriction of emissions of dioxide of sulphur (SO2,) that is in charge of the acid rain.
Reduction of dependence from imported fuels, improvement of commercial balance, in the guaranty of energy supply and in the saving of exchange.
Sources are commonly available.
Sources are locally produced, consequently it increases the occupation to the agriculture places with the use of alternatives cultures (several kinds of cane, sorghum), as well as the creation of alternative markets for the traditional cultures (sunflower etc.) and withholding of population in their hearths.
Increase of Biomass production can often mean the restoration of waste land.
Biofuels are liquid or gas fuels which are produced from the biomass. Biomass can replace the conventional mineral fuels, totally or partial in the engines [15].
The major issue is how a four-stroke diesel engine behaves on the side of pollutants and operation, when it uses mixed fuel of diesel – vegetable oils.
In the experiment stage has been used directly used vegetable oil (used sunflower oil that emanated from cooking) in the mixture of diesel in to a four – stroke diesel engine. Specifically it has been used diesel, mixture diesel-5% used vegetable oil (u5), diesel-10 used vegetable oil (u10), diesel-20% used vegetable oil (u20), diesel-30% used vegetable oil (u30), diesel-40% used vegetable oil (u40), diesel-50% used vegetable oil (u50) in a four-stroke diesel air-cooled engine named Ruggerini type RD-80, volume 377cc, and power 8.2hp/3000rpm, who was connected with a pump of water centrifugal. Measurements were made when the engine was function on 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500rpm.
During the experiments, it has been counted:
The percent of CO
Τhe ppm of HC
Τhe ppm of NO
The percent of smoke
Figure 1.
Experimental Layout
The measurement of rounds/min of the engine was made by a portable tachometer (Digital photo/contact tachometer) named LTLutron DT-2236. Smoke was measured by a specifically measurement device named SMOKE MODULE EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER MOD 9010/M, which has been connected to a PC unit. The CO and HC emissions have been measured by HORIBA Analyzer MEXA-324 GE. The NO emissions were measured by a Single GAS Analyser SGA92-NO.
2.1. Used vegetable oil
The experimental results are shown at the following tables and figures [16]:
Figure 2.
The CO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
CO %
diesel
u5
u10
u20
u30
u40
u50
1000
0,02898
0,01000
0,026081
0,030985
0,029143
0,017823
0,018223
1500
0,03039
0,03059
0,030043
0,029979
0,029310
0,011818
0,019767
2000
0,01000
0,02108
0,021379
0,023500
0,023059
0,014483
0,013624
2500
0,03508
0,03145
0,038315
0,029120
0,030713
0,019111
0,018298
Table 1.
The CO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
HC (ppm)
diesel
u5
u10
u20
u30
u40
u50
1000
2,535343
8,844156
5,653105
5,246253
5,124364
2,147903
2,974304
1500
13,31714
24,99127
12,87527
13,15385
9,358621
2,934461
6,714588
2000
7,131223
8,326797
12,67026
9,195652
13,79747
5,267241
4,936681
2500
10,96128
16,63420
17,30454
16,94635
6,706013
6,598698
6,759574
Table 2.
The HC average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
NO (ppm)
diesel
u5
u10
u20
u30
u40
u50
1000
518,210
771,001
696,827
495,603
380,361
349,140
207,760
1500
739,366
754,126
913,037
771,607
723,381
872,06
582,908
2000
762,155
834,334
520,485
760,936
839,268
928,337
720,505
2500
795,461
946,349
518,287
710,402
864,585
674,432
847,835
Table 3.
The NO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
% smoke
diesel
u5
u10
u20
u30
u40
u50
1000
3,262370
4,870779
5,966167
16,43362
12,26745
15,7298
11,32741
1500
7,100651
8,174236
5,768602
7,652778
5,56423
9,206977
13,05011
2000
5,688865
7,619826
4,704957
6,151304
4,948101
4,351724
9,59869
2500
29,00617
23,21970
25,67279
16,86674
14,59399
17,48286
15,87915
Table 4.
The % smoke average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 2 it is clear that the more constant behaviour appears in the mixture u40, while the best behaviour is appears in the case diesel/1500rpm. From figure 3 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to diesel in case of mixture u40. From figure 4 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of NO regarding to diesel in the case of mixture u40. From figure 5 it can be seen the biggest reduction for u40 until the case u40/1000rpm. From the above figures it is clear that the use of different mixtures can constitute changes to CO, HC, NO and smoke too. It is also important the fact that there was no changes in the rounds of the engine, as well as in the supply of water at the use of mixtures. Finally as far as the consumption is concerned, did not observed changes with the use of different mixtures.
Figure 3.
The HC variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 4.
The NO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
The use of mixtures of diesel-vegetable oil has as result change of gas emissions with better behaviour in the mixture u40. It is important, that is not presented reduction of power of engine from the combustion of the mixtures.
Figure 5.
The smoke variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
2.2. Maize oil
In the experiment stage has been used directly maize oil in the mixture of diesel in to a four – stroke diesel engine. Specifically it has been used diesel, mixture diesel-5% maize oil (k5), diesel-10% maize oil (k10), diesel-20% maize oil (k20), diesel-30% maize oil (k30), diesel-40% maize oil (k40), diesel-50% maize oil (k50) in a four-stroke diesel engine [17]:
rpm
CO %
diesel
k5
k10
k20
k30
k40
k50
1000
0,0289
0,0310
0,0309
0,0309
0,0319
0,0397
0,0345
1500
0,0303
0,0302
0,0304
0,0311
0,0345
0,0211
0,0288
2000
0,01
0,0280
0,0232
0,0284
0,0274
0,0281
0,0219
2500
0,0350
0,0244
0,0317
0,0296
0,0324
0,0305
0,0292
Table 5.
The CO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
HC (ppm)
diesel
k5
k10
k20
k30
k40
k50
1000
2,535
14,937
6,244
10,326
3,406
5,358
9,167
1500
13,31
21,485
9,236
17,997
14,718
0,449
17,197
2000
7,131
3,184
13,970
15,965
8,402
8,502
12,913
2500
10,961
16,347
18,884
23,556
30,551
7,451
17,712
Table 6.
The HC average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
NO (ppm)
diesel
k5
k10
k20
k30
k40
k50
1000
518,210
771,001
696,827
495,603
380,361
349,140
207,760
1500
739,366
754,126
913,037
771,607
723,381
872,06
582,908
2000
762,155
834,334
520,485
760,936
839,268
928,337
720,505
2500
795,461
946,349
518,287
710,402
864,585
674,432
847,835
Table 7.
The NO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
% smoke
diesel
k5
k10
k20
k30
k40
k50
1000
3,262
12,722
7,301
7,488
16,623
7,200
26,232
1500
7,100
10,924
5,487
6,547
14,850
12,141
24,035
2000
5,688
18,679
4,001
6,588
9,936
14,071
18,884
2500
29,006
28,282
21,848
15,730
17,579
13,438
14,265
Table 8.
The % smoke average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 6.
The CO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 7.
The HC variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 8.
The NO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 9.
The smoke variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 6 it is clear that when the maize oil is increased on the fuel regarding to diesel, it appears an increase of CO, except in the case k40/1500rpm. From figure 7 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to diesel in case of k40/1500rpm. From figure 8 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of NO regarding to diesel in the case of k20/2000-2500rpm. From figure 9 it can be noticed the biggest reduction for k10/1500-2000rpm. From the above figures it is clear that the use of different mixtures can constitute changes to CO, HC, NO and smoke too. It is also important the fact that there was no changes in the rounds of the engine, as well as in the supply of water at the use of mixtures. Finally as far as the consumption is concerned, did not observed changes with the use of different mixtures. The use of mixture of diesel and maize oil has the following impacts:
About CO it can be noticed that when the maize oil is increased on the fuel regarding to diesel, it appears a decrease of CO, except in the case k40/1500rpm.
About HC it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to diesel in case of k40/1500rpm
The biggest reduction of NO regarding to Diesel is noticed in the case of k20/2000-2500rpm.
The smoke it can be noticed the biggest reduction for k10/1500-2000rpm
2.3. Cotton oil
In the experiment stage has been used directly cotton oil in the mixture of diesel in to a four – stroke Diesel engine and not elaborated in the figure of bio-diesel. Specifically it has been used diesel, mixture diesel- 10% cotton oil(B10), diesel- 20% cotton oil(B20), diesel- 30% cotton oil (B30), diesel- 40% cotton oil (B40), diesel- 50% cotton oil (B50) in a four-stroke diesel engine [18]:
The experimental results are shown at the following tables and figures:
Figure 10.
The CO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 10 it is clear that when the cotton oil is increased on the fuel regarding to Diesel, it appears an increasement of CO.
rpm
% CO
Diesel
Β10
Β20
Β30
Β40
Β50
1000
0,075
0,076
0,075
0,091
0,098
0,095
1500
0,063
0,064
0,066
0,069
0,075
0,077
2000
0,052
0,057
0,062
0,057
0,065
0,061
2500
0,057
0,058
0,056
0,062
0,064
0,065
Table 9.
The CO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
HC (ppm)
Diesel
Β10
Β20
Β30
Β40
Β50
1000
30,78
35,86
39,04
39,05
14,86
46,64
1500
62,86
41,18
35,59
48,74
53,84
51,34
2000
125,52
83,84
101,38
109,07
76,42
142,94
2500
78,26
84,93
169,34
103,64
167,82
105,80
Table 10.
The HC average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
NO (ppm)
Diesel
Β10
Β20
Β30
Β40
Β50
1000
439,67
471,17
464,34
361,59
318,85
320,47
1500
649,65
660,83
626,78
611,71
565,26
522,16
2000
710,41
688,75
679,64
687,06
710,18
798,96
2500
868,88
930,50
919,53
919,08
987,35
947,80
Table 11.
The no average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
%smoke
Diesel
Β10
Β20
Β30
Β40
Β50
1000
7,72
5,76
6,36
13,89
12,88
13,35
1500
5,81
3,16
5,41
10,72
12,17
13,62
2000
5,24
3,62
4,45
7,59
7,28
7,70
2500
10,98
7,94
9,93
7,92
9,62
9,01
Table 12.
The %smoke average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 11.
The HC variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 11 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to Diesel in case of the mixture B20/1500 rpm and in the case of the mixture B40/2000 rpm.
From figure 12 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of NO regarding to Diesel in the cases of the mixture B40/1000 rpm, B50/1000 rpm and B50/1500 rpm too.
From figure 13 it can be seen the reduction of smoke regarding to Diesel in case of the mixture B10 and B20 at all rounds per minute. It can also be noticed the reduction of smoke in the case of B30, B40, B50/2500 rpm. Finally it can be seen an increasement of the mixture B30, B40, B50 at all rounds regarding to Diesel. From the above figures it is clear that the use of different mixtures can constitute changes to CO, HC, NO and smoke too.
Figure 12.
The NO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 13.
The smoke variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
It is also important the fact that there was no changes in the turns of engine, as well as in the supply of water at the use of mixtures. Finally as far as the consumption is concerned, did not exist changes with the use of different mixtures.The use of mixture of Diesel and Cotton Oil has the following impacts:
About CO it can be noticed an increasement when the cotton oil is used as a fuel.
About HC it can be noticed a reduction at 1500 rpm and particularly bigger reduction in the use of B20. It also appears reduction of the HC for all the mixture at 2000 rpm with the exception of B50. Finally about the HC, for all the mixture at 2500 rpm is observed increase of HC regarding to Diesel.
About NO has been noticed a reduction at 1000 rpm and 1500 rpm for all the mixtures. A small reduction appeared for all the mixtures at 2500 rpm with the exception of B50, regarding to Diesel. Finally about the NO for all the mixtures appeared increase at 2500 rpm regarding to Diesel.
About the smoke it can be noticed a reduction of the mixture of B20 and B10, but it appears an increasement for all other mixture in any round regarding to Diesel, with the exception of 2500 rpm, in where all the mixture appear a reduction.
2.4. Olive seed oil
In the experiment stage has been used directly cotton oil in the mixture of diesel in to a four – stroke Diesel engine. Specifically it has been used diesel, mixture diesel-5% olive seed oil (Pyrin5%), diesel-10% olive seed oil (Pyrin10%), diesel-20% olive seed oil (Pyrin20%), diesel-30% olive seed oil (Pyrin30%), diesel-40% olive seed oil (Pyrin40%), diesel-50% olive seed oil (Pyrin50%) in a four-stroke diesel engine [19]:
The experimental results are shown at the following tables and figures:
rpm
CO %
diesel
Pyrin 5%
Pyrin 10%
Pyrin 20%
Pyrin 30%
Pyrin 40%
Pyrin 50%
1000
0,056
0,056
0,054
0,060
0,053
0,053
0,048
1500
0,055
0,044
0,038
0,055
0,040
0,041
0,036
2000
0,043
0,038
0,031
0,050
0,031
0,036
0,030
Table 13.
The CO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
HC (ppm)
diesel
Pyrin 5%
Pyrin 10%
Pyrin 20%
Pyrin 30%
Pyrin 40%
Pyrin 50%
1000
31,783
35,237
77,922
152,830
13,023
16,799
12,508
1500
38,001
48,434
79,198
165,479
22,954
24,870
22,860
2000
38,338
71,585
97,513
208,166
60,209
37,725
47
Table 14.
The HC average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
NO (ppm)
rpm
diesel
Pyrin 5%
Pyrin 10%
Pyrin 20%
Pyrin 30%
Pyrin 40%
Pyrin 50%
1000
518,210
415,212
375,075
392,478
372,681
473,620
362,663
1500
739,366
730,361
677,793
703,549
673,198
729,462
758,413
2000
762,155
790,676
738,929
805,702
825,376
938,210
880,990
Table 15.
The NO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
%smoke
diesel
Pyrin 5%
Pyrin 10%
Pyrin 20%
Pyrin 30%
Pyrin 40%
Pyrin 50%
1000
9,990
12,605
14,787
12,717
11,018
9,932
16,278
1500
7,363
11,967
10,594
13,715
12,575
13,285
19,673
2000
6,634
14,212
12,201
14,131
14,098
17,528
23,359
Table 16.
The %smoke average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 14.
The CO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 15.
The HC variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 16.
The NO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 17.
The smoke variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 14 it is clear that when the olive seed oil is increased on the fuel regarding to diesel, it appears a decrease of CO. From figure 15 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to diesel in case of pyrin50%. From figure 16 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of NO regarding to diesel in the case of pyrin10%/2000rpm. From figure 17 it can be noticed that the best behaviour appears on diesel. From the above figures it is clear that the use of different mixtures can constitute changes to CO, HC, NO and smoke too. It is also important the fact that there was no changes in the rounds of the engine, as well as in the supply of water at the use of mixtures. Finally as far as the consumption is concerned, did not observed changes with the use of different mixtures. The use of mixture of diesel and olive seed oil has the following impacts:
About CO it can be noticed when the olive seed oil is increased on the fuel regarding to diesel, it appears a decrease of CO
About HC it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to diesel in case of pyrin50%
The biggest reduction of NO regarding to diesel in the case of pyrin10%/2000rpm.
The smoke it can be noticed that the best behaviour appears on diesel.
2.5. Soy oil
In the experiment stage has been used directly soy oil in the mixture of diesel in to a four – stroke Diesel engine. Specifically it has been used Diesel, mixture Diesel-5% soy oil (S5), Diesel-10% soy oil (S10), Diesel-20% soy oil (S20), Diesel-30% soy oil (S30), Diesel-40% soy oil (S40), Diesel-50% soy oil (S50) in a four-stroke diesel engine [20]:
The experimental results are shown at the following tables and figures:
Figure 18.
The CO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 18 it is clear that when the soy oil is increased on the fuel regarding to diesel, it appears a decrease of CO, except in the cases S5,30,40,50/1000rpm.
rpm
HC (ppm)
Diesel
S5
S10
S20
S30
S40
S50
1000
31,78
21,15
21,88
8,28
5,76
54,61
28,01
1500
38,00
24,30
51,65
9,16
5,80
55,53
30,04
2000
38,33
23,70
89,90
28,68
22,34
84,88
67,47
Table 17.
The CO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
NO (ppm)
Diesel
S5
S10
S20
S30
S40
S50
1000
454,2
387,6
397,5
416,1
414,8
341,0
277,9
1500
715,3
739,8
743,6
720,9
758,8
718,8
651,1
2000
1109,6
621,7
829,6
808,2
915,6
919,8
920,2
Table 18.
The HC average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
% smoke
Diesel
S5
S10
S20
S30
S40
S50
1000
9,99
8,72
9,41
11,61
14,26
18,32
24
1500
7,36
8,23
8,43
9,87
13,02
18,21
17,84
2000
6,63
6,25
7,70
8,08
11,27
17,21
20,5
Table 19.
The NO average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
rpm
CO %
Diesel
S5
S10
S20
S30
S40
S50
1000
0,056
0,063
0,056
0,052
0,062
0,069
0,072
1500
0,055
0,053
0,043
0,041
0,045
0,049
0,042
2000
0,043
0,044
0,037
0,04
0,032
0,037
0,029
Table 20.
The %smoke average value variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
Figure 19.
The HC variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 19 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to diesel in case of the mixtures S5, S20 and the mixture S40.
Figure 20.
The NO variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 20 it can be noticed the biggest reduction of NO regarding to Diesel in the case of the mixture S50.
Figure 21.
The smoke variation on different rpm regarding to the mixture
From figure 21 it can be seen the increase of smoke regarding to diesel for all the mixtures. From the above figures it is clear that the use of different mixtures can constitute changes to CO, HC, NO and smoke too. It is also important the fact that there was no changes in the rounds of the engine, as well as in the supply of water at the use of mixtures. Finally as far as the consumption is concerned, did not observed changes with the use of different mixtures. The use of mixture of diesel and soy oil has the following impacts:
About CO it can be noticed that when the soy oil is increased on the fuel regarding to diesel, it appears a decrease of CO, except in the cases S5,30,40,50/1000rpm.
About HC it can be noticed the biggest reduction of HC regarding to diesel in case of the mixtures S5, S20 and the mixture S40.In the case of S30 appears the maximum increase of HC in relation to diesel.
The biggest reduction of NO regarding to Diesel is noticed in the case of the mixture S50.
The smoke is increased regarding to diesel for all the mixtures. Except the cases S5,50/1000rpm.
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Written By
Charalampos Arapatsakos
Submitted: 15 November 2010Published: 06 September 2011