Forest Resources Value Chain Analyses: Alternative Development Pathways toward Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Forest Management in Ghana

Abstract

The value chain development of forest products and ecosystem services is important for sustainable forest management (SFM), especially in developing countries where the livelihoods of users and communities depend on timber and non-wood forest products (NWFPs). This chapter explains why and how NWFPs and ecotourism services value chain analyses need to be integrated into forest resource planning and management in Ghana. The chapter identified and analyzed all aspects of NWFPs and ecotourism services value chains and their roles in biodiversity conservation. The value chain analyses were approached through desk analysis of secondary information, field visits and interviews with key stakeholders. Theories on the concepts of value chain analyses and NWFPs and ecotourism services value chain analyses were provided. The study proposed alternative development pathways for NWFPs and ecotourism services value chain analyses and the institutiogramme for ecotourism services. It identified the link between these value chain analyses and the impact on forest biodiversity conservation. The study concludes that Ghana is faced with policy implementation challenges towards SFM that could be addressed by applying value chain analyses. This would help to increase policy understanding that there are alternatives to the current timber production, illegal farming and illegal mining practices on the forest landscape.

1. Introduction

Forestry in Ghana is increasingly becoming complex due to the need to balance highly varied interests by increasing categories of stakeholders. A range of forest products and ecotourism services are recognized during planning when making choices of sustainable management options. Ecotourism services are increasingly being viewed as a tool that can promote biodiversity and forest conservation in Ghana.

Ghana is one of the major producers and exporters of tropical timber products and continues to contribute to the domestic use and export of non-wood products. Ghanaians produce and market a diverse range of forest products and offer ecotourism services for the local, regional, and international markets. For decades, forestry has focused on the timber industry, and wood production practices have resulted in large-scale uncontrolled deforestation and forest degradation. Illegal farming and mining continue unabated. Deforestation and forest degradation have become serious environmental issues and are currently progressing resulting in the reduction of forest ecosystem productivity and biodiversity.

For the NWFPs and service sectors of the economy, due to increased competition, entrepreneurs and small and medium enterprises must find ways to stay competitive in the local, regional, and international markets. One of the ways to achieve competitive advantage while conserving the resource base is through forest products and services value chain analyses. Many studies have been conducted on the supply chain analyses of forest products [1, 2, 3]. However, in Ghana, little emphasis has been placed on the effect of analyzing the current and potential values of NWFPs and ecotourism services toward minimizing forest degradation and deforestation.

The objective of this chapter is to document the relationship between NWFPs and ecotourism services chain analyses and forest biodiversity conservation that enhance sustainable forest management in Ghana. It provides key considerations toward a better understanding of the manifold values of forest resources and identifies ways of incorporating these values into integrated forest planning and management.

The chapter provides a brief background of forest resources in Ghana, a theoretical examination of the concept of value chain analyses, NWFPs and ecotourism services value chain analyses, the models of value chain analyses that could be applied in Ghana, the challenges in these forestry subsectors, biodiversity conservation efforts, and the role of governance in NWFPs, and service management toward sustainable forest management. This can serve as useful information for the development of entrepreneurship in small- and medium-scale enterprises (SMEs) in Ghana’s non-wood forest and ecotourism sectors. It can help in putting more premium on NWFPs and ecotourism services value chain analyses and its influence on integrated planning toward biodiversity conservation.

2. Methods

This chapter was prepared to identify and analyze all aspects of the NWFPs and ecotourism services value chains and their roles in biodiversity conservation in Ghana. The value chain analyses were approached through a desk study (secondary information collection on the subject matter), field visits, and interviews with key stakeholders in the Western, Eastern, Bono East, and Greater Accra Region of the country. The desk study was used to collect, review, and analyze all existing and relevant documents related to the wood and non-wood forestry sectors from all related institutions in Ghana.

Field visits were undertaken for the study, where the authors made efforts to collect data that was not available through desk research. This part included a collection of information through interview sections with all relevant stakeholders in the NWFPs and ecosystem services value chain. The key stakeholders included actors and services sectors’ support of the existing business environment and interviews with representatives of the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Forestry Commission, Ministry of Trade and Industry, and selected MMDAs in the regions mentioned supra.

Agents of selected SMEs that are working with the NWFPs sector in these regions were purposively selected and interviewed. Information related to their operations was collected through the interview process. Efforts were made to analyze the indirect value chain participants such as logistics and marketing aspects of business operations. Finally, the producing, processing and marketing aspect of the NWFPs ecotourism services value chain was covered through interviews with all relevant actors in the targeted regions.

Focus groups were organized with participants from key sector stakeholders from all points of the value chain. The primary goal of the focus group sessions was to elaborate and discuss the main findings of the research. The recommendations and proposed policy interventions were complemented by the sector stakeholders, resulting in this paper, which reflects the needed strategies and identifies the gaps in the non-wood forest products (NWFPs) and ecosystem services sectors of Ghana.

3. Forest resources of Ghana

The 2012 Ghana Forest and Wildlife Policy and other subsequent publications provide baseline information on the forest resources of Ghana [4]. The total area of Ghana is about 23.9 million ha. As of 2021, the Forestry Commission indicated that high forest vegetation zones (wet evergreen, moist evergreen, upland evergreen moist semi-deciduous, dry semi-deciduous, southern marginal, and southeast outlier forests) covered 8.2 million ha. The high forest zone covers seven vegetation zones with distinct associations of plant species and corresponding rainfall and soil conditions. The savannah zone that is made up of the Guinea savanna and Sudan savanna covers 15.7 million ha.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in 2020, Ghana’s forest cover was close to 7.99 million ha, accounting to 33% of the total land area. The country’s forest has also been classified into open forest, closed forest, and plantation forest. The forest resources have been categorized into different use types, namely, the reserved and unreserved forest areas based on management objectives. The forest reserve covers about 24.2% of the total land area [5]. Currently, there are 282 gazetted forest and wildlife reserves (protected areas) covering 22.754 million ha of which 216 (covering 1.6 million ha) are in the high forest zone and 66 are located in the savannah zone [6]. Both forest and wildlife reserves cover about 16.2% of the total land surface area (Figure 1). The reserved areas account for 1.77 million ha of forestland, of which 1.634 million ha are under the management and control of the Forest Services Division, while the Wildlife Division manages 0.136 million ha [7]. Areas for the conservation of forest and wildlife constitute about 16.2% of the total land area of Ghana [4]. Among the two types of forest reserves, that is, production (80%) and conservation areas (20%), the production of timber is mainly concentrated in the southwestern part of Ghana where forest types range from wet evergreen to semi-deciduous.

Figure 1.

Map of Ghana showing forest and wildlife reserves. Source: Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana’s 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy.

Ghana was once well-endowed with forest resources, and the forest offers many timber and non-timber goods and services for the rapidly growing economy. The forests provide many products for the local and international economy, which the local population subsists [5]. However, these resources are depleting faster due to a variety of factors including agricultural expansion and overexploitation of forest resources. In addition to the natural forest areas, there are stands of trees, including plantations established by the government and private and industry investors, and community-based forests or plantations made by farmers. The forest resources of the country play a significant role in income generation and food provision for households with forest products providing sustenance and revenue. Forest fringe communities depend on the forest resources through the collection and production of non-wood products such as fuelwood, hunting for game, collection of snails and mushrooms, gathering of medicinal herbs and chewing sticks, and both legal and illicit logging [8].

Though the diversity of forest resources in Ghana is remarkable, the status of deterioration of these resources continues to be monitored. The primary causes of serious threats include loss of forest cover due to shifting cultivation, illegal felling, conversion of forest lands for urban expansion, and other biotic pressures. Illegitimate cutting of trees has impacted the climatic conditions at a micro level. It has affected the soil quality, hydrological cycle, and biodiversity of the country, thus making the country more exposed to natural calamities and climate change. Most forests are under threat due to strong anthropogenic pressure, extensively due to collection of fuelwood and livestock grazing. Effective management strategies that take into account restoration and also promote judicious use of forest resources would ensure sustainability in the long run.

Ghana’s forest resources are being lost at an alarming rate over the years. One-third of Ghana’s total land area of 23.9 million hectares was occupied by tropical natural forests at the beginning of the twentieth century [9]. The World Bank Group provided the status of Ghana’s forest resources [10]. The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 indicated that Ghana lost an average of 135,000 hectares of natural forest per year between 1990 and 2000 at a deforestation rate of 1.7% per annum and a further 115,000 hectares between 2000 and 2005 amounting to about 26.0% of forest cover loss between 1990 and 2005 [11]. Currently, Ghana is experiencing a 2% rate of annual deforestation and forest degradation, which translates into approximately 135,000 ha/year of forest cover loss due to anthropogenic causes [12]. In 2021, Ghana had a forest area of nearly 80,000 km². This represented roughly 35% of the country’s total land area. In contrast, between 2008 and 2015, the forest stretch followed a contracting trend. In 2021, around 10,400 ha of primary forests were lost in the country, which was the highest area of forest lost since 2001. The primary cause of tree cover loss in Ghana is shifting agriculture, which usually emanates from small- and medium-scale agricultural activities. In 2019, over 80,000 ha of tree cover was lost through shifting agriculture.

4. State of Ghana’s forests for biodiversity conservation

Forest biodiversity encompasses the variety and variability of life forms within forest ecosystems, including flora, fauna, and microorganisms, as well as the genetic diversity within these species [13]. The rapid expansion of sustainable forest management has led to the adoption of various forest management frameworks intended to safeguard biodiversity [14]. However, it is essential to consider the impact of forest management practices on biodiversity, as the reduction of dead wood due to harvesting and sanitation fellings can negatively affect the biodiversity of forest ecosystems [15].

Ghana is rich in biodiversity. There are over 3600 plant species. Forty-three species are endemic. The fauna of the terrestrial ecosystem comprises a diverse array of species including several of conservation concern. Records show that there could be as many as 221 species of amphibians and reptiles, 724 species of birds, and 225 mammalian species (with 93 recorded to inhabit the savanna ecological zone). The faunal diversity includes 225 mammal species, 74 bat species, 37 rodents, 724 birds, 221 amphibians and reptiles, and 850 species of butterflies in the forest zone alone [16, 17, 18]. The wet evergreen forest is floristically the most rich, while the drier southern marginal forest is species-poor. The moist evergreen and moist semi-deciduous forest zones are the most important for commercial timber species.

In managerial terms, this means conserving biodiversity by creating parks and reserves with minimal to hardly any human influence. Some species need to be protected because of their restricted distribution or their habitat degradation or destruction. However, the forest biodiversity of Ghana faces significant threats from deforestation and forest degradation driven by factors such as overexploitation of NWFPs by local communities [16, 19]. These activities have led to a sharp decline in forest biodiversity and ecosystem services. Additionally, the impact of cocoa farming on vegetation has resulted in the establishment of farms in clear-cut forests, providing poor habitats for a wide range of biodiversity [17]. Furthermore, the study highlighted the importance of recognizing certain areas in Ghana as Key Biodiversity Areas, emphasizing the significance of specific regions for biodiversity conservation [18].

The management of Ghana’s forests and biodiversity conservation has seen the introduction of new dimensions, such as the planting and maintenance of indigenous timber and non-timber tree species, as well as the involvement of local farmers in the rehabilitation of degraded tropical forests [20]. Moreover, the involvement of local communities in conservation efforts, such as the use of livelihood support activities, has been identified as a strategy to achieve conservation objectives in Ghana [21]. Additionally, traditional biodiversity conservation strategies, including sacred forests, taboos, and totems associated with various animal species, have been evaluated for their effectiveness in biodiversity conservation in Ghana [22].

The biodiversity of Ghana’s forests faces significant challenges from deforestation, overexploitation of forest products, and the expansion of agricultural activities. Efforts to address these challenges include the involvement of local communities, the implementation of new forest management dimensions, and the evaluation of traditional conservation strategies. These findings underscore the importance of sustainable forest management practices and conservation efforts to preserve Ghana’s forest biodiversity. The Protected Areas strategically located in the country are an essential element of any strategy to conserve tropical forest biodiversity (Figure 1).

5. Some challenges to sustainable forest management in Ghana

Forest resources are critical for the conservation of biological diversity and water and soil resources as well as for meeting our needs for wood and non-wood forest products. The concept of sustainable forest management has different meanings but involves perpetuating ecological, economic, and/or social forest assets [23]. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) describes sustainable forest management (SFM) as a strategy for securing an improved livelihood for present generations while maintaining the potential of the forest heritage for future generations [23]. The FAO noted that SFM involves planning the production of wood for commercial purposes as well as meeting local needs for fuelwood, poles, food, fodder, and other purposes. It includes that the protection or setting aside of areas to be managed as plant or wildlife reserves or for recreational or environmental purposes is imperative. The concept therefore incorporates human preferences for timber and non-timber products; preferences for marketed as well as non-marketed products and services; the preferences of industrial as well nonindustrial agents, including local people; and the preferences of present as well as future generations [24].

Policies and practices of sustainable forestry and SFM in Ghana have a long history of achievements and challenges. Adoption and implementation of sustainable forestry practices are essential for sustaining forest resources; however, the development of effective policies and strategies to achieve them is problematic [25]. The authors studied the limited understanding of the interaction between obtrusive forest policies and indigenous tenure systems and how this affects SFM in Ghana, as current statutes provide few incentives for farmers to engage in sustainable practices. According to [26], the characteristics of small and medium forest (SME) enterprises have an impact on SFM in Ghana. This study advocated that forest policies must promote sustainable management of forest resources by enforcing registration and permit laws. SMF enterprises must be consistently monitored and supervised to ensure that their activities are guided by policy and their compliance is rewarded through capacity building and government support.

The Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA) between Ghana and the European Union (EU) was ratified to speed up the good governance process in the forestry sector of Ghana to promote sustainable management of forest resources and enhance and sustain the trade relationship with the EU [27]. The study observed some challenges that affect the full realization of the expected benefits associated with VPA. The study recommended the use of stakeholder consultations and workshops to help address the interagency coordination problem, which will help optimize the enforcement of the VPA.

Another challenge to SMF in Ghana is that there is inadequate information and guidelines that help decision-makers understand the economic value of the forests to local communities as these values influence how they respond and support policies and interventions [28]. This study indicates that local communities around reserves are likely to support forest management initiatives that promote sustainable use of the forest resources in the reserve.

Tindan delved into the causes and impact of deforestation on local-level sustainable forest management in Ghana by examining the causes and impact of deforestation and investigating the conditions for local-level sustainable forest management in Ghana [29]. A key argument advanced by this study is that sustainable forest management is a collaborative activity; hence, at the local level, efforts should be made to ensure broad public participation of all stakeholders in decision-making and policy design and implementation.

The perception of local forest fringe communities impacts the SFM agenda and practices. This study examined stakeholders’ perceptions of forests and their implications for sustainable forest management in Ghana [30]. The study discovered that the call for sustainable management of natural resources, particularly in the forestry sector, is highly needed in Ghana. The research findings confirmed that stakeholders’ participation in SFM in both communities has been met with a myriad of challenges that are deeply rooted in the stakeholders’ perceptions of what constitutes forest and the classification of forest, which are present in the communities. The conditions for ineffective SFM in these communities have been determined by three factors: “access to,” “nature of,” and “right to” forest resources.

6. Theoretical framework

6.1 Value chain analyses and mapping

A value chain is a concept that describes the series of interrelated activities within a business that add value to the product, starting with raw materials till the conversion into a valuable product or service to market. The value chain therefore focuses on the market collaborating strategy, emphasizing the connections between production, marketing, and so on activities of the products and services effectively and efficiently [31]. Breaking down practices of business entities into value chain activities enables a more focused analysis of each activity regarding its value creation for customers [32]. Value chains can be mapped and analyzed using value chain analyses, which can include qualitative and/or quantitative tools [33].

Value chain analysis is a tool used to identify what consumers value and will pay for in a product or service (i.e., its value attributes) and where that value is created or destroyed in the chain. A value chain analysis is a strategic tool to analyze each of the activities in a business’s value chain to increase the efficiency of the chain and gain a competitive advantage. This analysis requires the “mapping of the market” to track and analyze the contribution of the different chain actors and the relationships among themselves. An understanding of the interactions within a value chain helps identify the factors that influence how well or how badly the chain works [34]. Value chain mapping means drawing a visual representation of the value chain system. Maps identify business operations (functions), chain operators and their linkages, as well as the chain supporters within the value chain.

The resulting market map defines the value chain actors, the enabling environment and the critical service providers. The enabling environment includes critical factors that create the operating conditions within which the value chain operates, such as infrastructure, policies, and regulations, as well as institutions and processes that shape the market ecosystem [35]. According to [36], these factors are beyond the control of the value chain actors, but understanding them is critical to ascertain the trends affecting the chain and the drivers of these trends, thereby identifying opportunities for lobbying. Service providers may include business services that provide support to the value chain, such as providers of market information, financial services, transport services, research and development, and extension education services.

6.2 Non-wood forest products value chain analyses

Economic analyses of the value chain are aimed at measuring and interpreting the profitability and sustainability of the value chain operations for all the actors directly involved. They also analyze the profitability and marketing margins obtained by actors at various nodes of a product’s value chain [33]. NWFPs have been analyzed in several studies for their economic benefits and value chain. These products have economic value and play a significant role in supporting rural livelihoods and the bioeconomy [37, 38, 39]. In most tropical forest countries, forest fringe communities, including farmers, depend on income from collecting, processing, and marketing forest products. A conclusion by [33] is that increasing cash income to local communities while simultaneously creating incentives for the conservation of trees and forested ecosystems is a win-win situation. The ability of these farmers to earn and maximize income from trading forest products depends on the economic factors relating to the products collected. The incomes derived from these activities depend on the availability of inputs, such as processing materials, labor, and transportation.

In the concept of forest resources sustainability and sustainable development of the forestry sector, NWFPs have great importance, in particular, the economic, environmental, and social effects of the NWFPs [40]. Many countries are making strategic efforts to move from wood-based production systems to non-wood production systems to reduce the negative impacts of deforestation and forest degradation. NWFPs include goods of biological origin other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded land, and trees outside forests [41].

The commercialization of NWFPs has been one of the strategies for addressing rural poverty and forest degradation [42]. These products contribute to the livelihood of communities in both rural and urban areas and are economically important at national and global levels [43]. In forest communities, this strategy is demonstrated by marketing NWFPs as an opportunity for both livelihood improvement and forest conservation.

The NWFP value chain development is important for sustainable forest management, especially in tropical developing countries where the livelihoods of several people directly depend on timber and non-timber forest products [44]. Value chain development and support should focus on products that have local, regional, or international markets. To capture all key actors in the non-wood value chain, it is important to understand the following: (1) the types of NWFPs used and preferred at household level, (2) the types and quantities of NWFPs marketed, (3) the value addition done along the chain, (4) the income generated from NWFP trade, and (5) the influence of local deforestation and forest degradation status on any of these.

In the view of [45], value chain analyses can be used to explain and help in the understanding of the commercialization of NWFPs by focusing on the whole range of the activities and transfers involved in the production, transport, distribution, and promotion of particular commodities. NWFPs have significant importance in the value chain analyses. They contribute to the livelihoods, income, and trading of households and communities in both rural and urban areas worldwide [39]; offer a wide range of products and services that benefit human well-being; and play a crucial role in provisioning forest ecosystem services.

The value chain analyses of NWFPs help in understanding the map of the value chain, the value added by households, and the impact on household income. They also highlight the potential of NWFPs for diversifying the forest bioeconomy and strengthening the economic viability of rural areas [46]. The success of NWFP value chains depends on strong relationships among market actors, creative problem-solving, and adapting strategies to meet the changing needs of local partners [47]. Proper policy formulation and commercialization of NWFPs through value chains are essential for sustainable livelihoods and the economic potential of communities relying on NWFPs. Forest owners play a key role in the value production of NWFPs and can benefit from the opportunities offered by service-based forest value production.

7. Alternative development pathways for non-wood forest products value chain for Ghana

NWFPs in Ghana includes all products gathered from forests whether for commercial or subsistence purposes [48] and include those for household use and trade. As pressure increases on forest resources, a clear picture of their products and services, users, and uses is needed for policy-making and forest management planning. The study was done to identify strategies of incorporating NWFPs in forest management planning by examining the demand for them and assessing their supply.

The values of non-wood forest products derived from sustainably managed forest ecosystems have been provided [49]. These values have been categorized under forest products and services, and for each of these products and services, their values have been explained.

NWFPs value chain analyses in Ghana should focus on a holistic view of value chains in their different dimensions: functional, economic, social, and environmental [50]. They should encompass and integrate a large number of concerns driving the impact and performance of value chains.

Alternative pathways for NWFPs value chain for Ghana can be developed by focusing on diversification, stakeholder involvement, and sustainable governance. Diversification of the forest bioeconomy to include NWFPs can provide additional income and strengthen the economic viability of rural areas [51]. Stakeholder interaction and expert involvement can help identify the future potential of NWFPs and their value networks, enabling forest owners to focus on the joint production of wood and non-wood resources [52]. Additionally, [53] indicated that integrating NWFPs into the bioeconomy requires strengthening formal markets, developing value-added products, and embedding sustainable governance into the development of the NWFP industry. This can be achieved through legislative, economic, and information-based measures, which can support the supply chain and promote the market and bioeconomy potential of NWFPs [26]. Overall, a combination of diversification, stakeholder involvement, and sustainable governance can help develop alternative pathways for the value chain of NWFPs.

Access to non-wood forest products in Ghana provides great benefits to forest fringe communities; however, the utilization of the benefits as either commercial commodities or personal goods can determine the intensity of collection of these products from the forest, which can lead to either potential degradation or continued regeneration of forests. These could come under the traditional practice or commercializing the traditional livelihoods.

Studies have dealt with alternative development pathways for NWFPs that hinge on sustainable development principles, for example, [54, 55, 56]. The alternative development pathways can be created to analyze non-wood forest product value chains that are socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable in Ghana. The International Labour Organization [57] provided three pathways that Ghana should consider:

1. Social analyses: proposes a profile of the value chain based on impact and risks in the following fields: working conditions, forest resources rights and access to non-wood products, gender equality, food and nutritional security, social capital, and living conditions.

2. Economic analyses of value chains: financial indicators, calculation of added value, measurement of competitiveness, distribution of income, and so forth;

3. Life cycle assessment: focusing “damage” on resource depletion, ecosystem quality and human health, impact on climate change, and monitoring of biodiversity.

The alternative NWFP value chain for Ghana should be broken down into several subsets of activities: production, collection, processing, storage, transport, marketing, and sale (Figure 2). According to [58], the relative importance of each of these activities differs from product to product; they may not occur sequentially, and some may even be repeated or omitted for particular products.

Figure 2.

Key activities in NWFP value chain.

An alternative NWFP marketing value chain for Ghana as shown in Figure 3 should include the following key activities of collections, cultivation, storage, processing and transportation.

Figure 3.

An alternative value chain map for NWFPs for Ghana adapted from [59].

7.1 Potential distribution channels for NWFPs in Ghana

Marketing of the NWFPs is the process of exploring which products potential customers will purchase and then producing, processing, promoting, and distributing the products at a profit [59]. In most instances, collectors of NWFPs do not market their products; rather they sell the products to a customer (the middleman). If the goal is for the communities to retain a larger portion of the income generated by NWFPs, the task of both the producer and those involved in assisting the market development of NWFPs is to transform the current process from selling to marketing at the community level. Marketing strategies for successful NWFP commercialization are important, especially in those rural economies where NWFPs represent a considerable source of income for small- and medium-scale forest-based enterprises [60].

Product distribution channels for NWFPs should involve various factors such as the involvement of intermediaries, the influence of channel members on key decisions, and the impact of conflicts on channel relationships. In Ghana, different NWFP distribution channels are proposed:

1. Government-Managed Forest: Distribution channel 1: Forestry Commission District Offices—Harvesters/Collectors—Processors—Wholesalers—Retailers—Consumers.

2. Government-Managed Forest: Distribution channel 2: Forestry Commission District Offices—Harvesters/Collectors—Agents/Traders (Intermediary Contractors)—Processors—Exporters.

3. Government-Managed Forest: Distribution channel 3: Forest Commission District Offices—Harvesters/Collector—Processors—Wholesalers (In Processing)—Retailers—Consumers.

4. Government-Managed Forest: Distribution channel 4: Forest Commission District Offices—Harvesters/Collectors—Processors (in Processing or Export)—Exporters—Consumers.

5. Community-Managed Forest: Distribution channel 6: Harvesters/Collectors from Off Forest Reserve Protected Areas—Wholesalers—Processors—Retailers.

6. Community-Managed Forest: Distribution channel 5: Harvesters/Collectors from Off Forest Reserve Protected Areas—Wholesalers—Primary Processors—Exporters—Importers—Secondary Processors—Consumers.

Based on the six distributional channels proposed for Ghana, each actor in the mapping will create different value additions for NWFP as follows:

• Forestry commission (FC) district office: The FC District Offices are the agents that play a production role, creating the first added value for NWFPs in the value chain. The added value the FC creates in market channels is not economically high. The added value of the FC should be highest when it directly sells NWFPs to the processors for export purposes (distribution channel 4). The added value created could be the highest, but the product requirements for the key NWFPs could be highest.

• NWFP collectors from forest reserves managed by FC: These are actors who obtain entry permits from the District Forestry Office to enter and collect the NWFPs. They are collectors who should appear on channel 1 and channel 2. The added value that these actors receive will not be much, so in addition to fresh product collection, they also will participate in other labor activities such as product collection as a secondary source of their income.

• NWFP collectors from off-forest reserve areas: These are actors that collect NWFPs from lands outside of government-managed protected areas. They are collectors who should appear on channel 1 and channel 2. The added value that these actors receive will not be much, so in addition to fresh product collection, they also will participate in other labor activities such as product collection as a secondary source of their income.

• NWFP processors: The processing actor is an agent contributing to the added value of NWFP through processing and exporting activities. At the same time, the agent should be present in the product distribution channels. If the processors buy the products directly from the FC, they would receive a higher added value.

• NWFP wholesalers: Being a commercial agent, wholesalers play an important role in the distribution of NWFP to the domestic markets. The wholesalers should transport the products for sale to retailers within the production districts and can also ship the products outside of Ghana.

• NWFP retailer: In the domestic market, the retailer is the agent that should bring NWFPs to consumers.

Based on the distribution channels proposed, Ghana should adopt the value chain map for NWFPs as shown in Figures 4 and 5.

Figure 4.

Potential value chain map for NWFPs for Ghana adapted from Ref. [14].

Figure 5.

Potential value chain map for non-wood forest products for Ghana adapted from Maisharou and Larwanou [61].

8. Ecotourism value chain analyses

Ecotourism can be summarized as conservation and nature-based, containing educational and interpretation features to build local and tourist awareness while minimizing the negative impact on the natural and sociocultural environment and generating economic benefits for host communities [62, 63]. Ecotourism is conceived as a nonconsumptive, market-based approach to forest utilization that has received primary attention due to its potential economic and environmental benefits. It is composed of various stakeholders, with the majority of them being small to medium enterprises that operate in different industries such as lodging, transportation, attractions, food and beverages, retail, and so forth [64] and therefore have complex value chains.

Ecotourism is emerging as an alternative development path that can enhance environmental conservation and promote sustainable livelihoods in many developing countries [65]. According to [66], the development of alternative forms of tourism, such as ecotourism, cultural tourism, and creative tourism, supports a different philosophy of tourism that integrates local populations and natural and human environments. Sustainable tourism has the potential to contribute to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals at the local level [67]. Ecotourism, as a sub-component of sustainable tourism, involves visiting natural areas in an environmentally friendly manner and can provide direct benefits to local communities [68]. In the view of [69], ecotourism tourism value-chain can be an alternative pathway for socioeconomic development, as demonstrated in the case of Rwanda.

A typical ecotourism value chain was provided by [70]. The key ecotourism activities are: (i) product design and development, (ii) promotion and distribution, (iii) inbound transportation, (iv) accommodation and catering, (v) excursion, and (vi) outbound transportation (Figure 6). The study summarized the key actors to include: (i) consumers, (ii) suppliers, and (iii) related and supporting institutions.

Figure 6.

Value chain in the tourism sector (source: Kruk et al. [32]).

8.1 Alternative development pathways for ecotourism value chain for Ghana

Ecotourism is an opportunity to provide for biodiversity maintenance and improvement, employment, visitor appreciation and awareness, cultural exchange, environmental education, revenue generation, and justifying protected areas. In the context of ecotourism, the value chain describes a full range of activities and the different actors involved that are required to bring a nature-based tourism product or service from conception, through the different phases of production (involving a combination of physical transformation and inputs from various tourism producers), to delivery to the final consumers (tourists). The concept is increasingly being applied in the ecotourism context as a tool for business development [71]. According to [71], value chain promotion can bring the different ecotourism actors and institutions in Ghana at the micro, meso, and macro levels onto a common platform to improve the ecotourism sub-sectors competitiveness, reduce costs, and assure quality ecotourism products and services for visitors.

Figure 7 is an adopted ecotourism value chain that could be applied in Ghana for a sustainable visitor experience.

Figure 7.

Alternative development pathways for ecotourism value chain for Ghana adapted from United States Agency for International Development [72].

The delivery of a mix of ecotourism products and services to customers mobilizes different tourism actors, each specializing at different levels in the chain [71]. This nature-based tourism industry synchronizes interactions in local value chains to create an extended value chain, sometimes even global in scope. This larger interconnected system of value chains has been termed a “value system.” The ecotourism value system includes the value chains of a tourism enterprise’s supplier, the tourism enterprise itself, the tourism enterprise’s distribution channels, and the final tourism enterprise’s buyers (ecotourists).

9. Institutiogramme for ecotourism value chain for Ghana

The role of ecotourism sector of Ghana cannot thrive sustainably without a well-structured institutiogramme. An institutiogramme, according to [71], is a visualization of the relationship between people and institutions active in the ecotourism sector and field of analysis. The institutiogramme helps to analyze the environment and, specifically, the relationship between actors in the sector of the economy. It helps in identifying relationships to improve, to reconsider, or to be established to ensure a productive, viable, and sustainable ecotourism sector of Ghana. Furthermore, it assists in determining the position of NWFPs and ecotourism projects in the existing institutional setting.

The institutiogramme in Ghana is a useful tool to show the position of the NWFPs and ecotourism organizations and institutions in their environment and for discussing the relationships between ecotourism organizations in a network and determining their appropriateness for the effective and efficient achievement of the desired strategic goals and objectives. The institutiogramme therefore helps as a first assessment of the interests and involvement of ecotourism stakeholders in terms of their institutional relationships, coordination, and cooperation. Based on the proposed alternative development pathways for ecotourism value chain conceptualized for Ghana, an institutiogramme for Ghana that will support an integrated planning and management of the ecotourism sector of the economy would emerge (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Institutiogramme for ecotourism development in Ghana.

10. Challenges in the forest resources value chain in Ghana

The policy and development of the forest resources value chain has been met with challenges, which when critically addressed could lead to stakeholders’ attention to the protection and conservation of Ghana’s forest estates. The key challenges faced in the NWFPs and ecotourism value chain include:

1. Deforestation and illegal logging with the attendant impact on biodiversity status with the socioeconomic and cultural implications.

2. The ucn-wood forest products that threatens plant and animal species found in their natural habitats.

3. Inadequate appreciation of indigenous knowledge and practices in protecting and managing forest resources and current and potential values held by Ghanaians.

4. Ecotourism concerns that are linked to environmental impact as well imbalance between tourism and conservation goals.

5. Low linkage between the NWFP and ecotourism industries and other sectors of the Ghana’s economy.

6. Quality of basic infrastructure required by visitors are minimal and often below acceptation to even down-to-earth ecotourists.

7. Limited coordination among different influential stakeholders/actors in ecotourism context.

8. Minimal integration of NWFPs and ecotourism development into Ghana’s development.

9. Sudden increase in demand for diversifying ecotourism experiences and corresponding proliferation of ecotourism sites with limited quality of services and underqualified products.

11. Conclusion and recommendation of the study

The study concludes that Ghana is faced with policy implementation challenges toward sustainable forest management. Some of these challenges could be addressed by applying key concepts of value chain, value chain analyses and mapping, the economic analyses of non-wood forest products value chain, and non-wood forest products value chain analyses. These analyses should provide the foundation to develop alternative development pathways for non-wood forest products and ecotourism value chains for Ghana. Also, the institutiogramme for the ecotourism value chain for Ghana should be strategically structured to address the many challenges in the forest resources value chain development toward sustainable development.

It is therefore recommended that the Forestry Commission (FC) of Ghana should identify the link and knowledge between NWFPs and ecotourism value chain analyses and the impact on forest biodiversity conservation. The Commission should collaborate with the academia and research institutions to study the proposed alternative NWFPs and ecotourism services value chain development pathways that would bring benefits to investors as well as foster integrated planning that considers sustainable forest resources management. This would help increase the understanding that there are alternatives to the current unsustainable timber production practices, unchecked illegal farming, and uncontrolled illegal mining on the forest landscape. The FC should adopt and enhance the institutiogramme in Ghana as a useful tool to show the position of the NWFPs and ecotourism organizations and institutions in their environment. This should open the relationships between ecotourism organizations in a network for discussion and determine their appropriateness for the effective and efficient achievement of the desired strategic goals and objectives.