Surgical procedure and number of patient.
Abstract
Pelvic recurrence is a significant concern following curative resection for rectal cancer, regardless of the tumor’s origin of the rectum. In this retrospective observational study, 219 patients were analyzed, with 213 undergoing surgical treatment for rectal cancer at three surgical centers between 2014 and 2019. Surgical procedures included anterior resection with Hartmann’s procedure (39 patients), anterior resection of rectosigmoid with colorectal anastomosis (130 cases), and abdominoperineal resection (44 cases). After a 2-year follow-up, pelvic recurrence occurred in 19 patients, constituting approximately 8.9% of cases. The recurrence rates varied among surgical procedures, with a 15.38% recurrence rate after the Hartmann procedure, 9% after abdominoperineal resection, and 7% after anterior resection of rectosigmoid with colorectal anastomosis. Emphasize the high recurrence rates associated with advanced stages of rectal cancer. Notably, its follow-up was done clinically, by laboratory tests, colonoscopy (the main test for pelvic recurrence) after 6 months of surgery, 12 months, and 2 years, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and pelvic ultrasound at one year and 2 years, a lower recurrence rate being indicative of a successful curative surgical treatment. The Hartmann procedure, often performed as an emergency operation for locally advanced lesions, exhibited the highest recurrence rate.
Keywords
- pelvic recurrence
- rectal cancer
- colonoscopy
- future direction
- anastomasis
1. Introduction
A colonoscopy is a medical procedure used to examine the inside of the colon and rectum. It is an essential tool for diagnosing and monitoring various gastrointestinal conditions, including colorectal cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, and polyps.
Space of endoscopy rooms: reception and waiting room, room procedure, (Figure 1), recovery room, postprocedural and consultation room, and the last training room for students and residents. Equipment: endoscope tower – endoscope, monitor, insufflation, light source, and other instruments that are necessary for procedures, storage instruments, accessories, and consumables. The control of infection is carried out by cleaning and sterilization room.
![](/media/chapter/a043Y00000zXAzDQAW/a093Y00001g54hbQAA/media/F1.png)
Figure 1.
Colonoscopy position.
Here’s a brief overview of the colonoscopy procedure:
1.1 Preparation
Before the colonoscopy, patients are instructed to follow a specific diet and bowel preparation regimen. This often involves following a clear liquid diet and taking a laxative or bowel-cleansing solution to empty the colon.
1.2 Arrival at the medical facility
Patients typically arrive at a hospital or an outpatient clinic for the procedure. They will be asked to change into a hospital gown.
2. Types of screening tests
DNA stool tests, such as Cologuard, detect specific DNA changes associated with colorectal cancer.
Colorectal cancer follow-up colonoscopy: Follow-up colonoscopies are an essential part of monitoring individuals who have previously been diagnosed with colorectal cancer or who have had precancerous polyps removed during a colonoscopy. The specific recommendations for follow-up colonoscopies can vary based on the individual’s medical history, the stage of cancer, and the presence of any risk factors [3].
However, here is a general guideline for follow-up colonoscopies after a colorectal cancer diagnosis:
3. Importance of early detection
Improved survival rates: When colorectal cancer is detected at an early stage, the chances of successful treatment and long-term survival are significantly higher. In fact, for localized colorectal cancer (cancer that hasn’t spread beyond the colon or rectum), the 5-year survival rate can exceed 90%. Early detection allows for timely intervention and more effective treatment options. Minimized treatment intensity: Early stage colorectal cancer often requires less aggressive treatment than advanced-stage cancer. Surgery alone may be curative in many cases, sparing patients from the need for extensive chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Early detection can prevent the cancer from progressing to a more advanced stage, which may involve more invasive treatments and potentially debilitating symptoms, and this helps in maintaining a better quality of life for patients [4]. Treating colorectal cancer at an early stage is generally less costly than treating advanced-stage cancer. This can lead to cost savings for patients and healthcare systems.
Prevention of metastasis: Colorectal cancer that is caught early is less likely to metastasize to other organs or lymph nodes. Early detection often allows for the preservation of more of the colon or rectum during surgery, minimizing the need for extensive surgical procedures, such as colostomy or ileostomy [5]. Colorectal cancer often starts as benign growths—polyps. During a colonoscopy, these polyps can be identified and removed, effectively preventing cancer from developing.
The identification of hereditary conditions, such as Lynch syndrome or familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), which increase the risk of colorectal cancer is important. Identifying these conditions in one family member can lead to early screening and preventive measures for other family members. Screening can detect cancer in its earliest stages or identify precancerous lesions, reducing the overall burden of the disease. Early detection allows for long-term surveillance and monitoring of individuals at higher risk for colorectal cancer. This ensures that any new polyps or cancerous growths are detected promptly.
![](/media/chapter/a043Y00000zXAzDQAW/a093Y00001g54hbQAA/media/F2.png)
Figure 2.
Recovery room.
![](/media/chapter/a043Y00000zXAzDQAW/a093Y00001g54hbQAA/media/F3.png)
Figure 3.
Room procedure.
Long-term surveillance:
After several years of regular follow-up colonoscopies with no signs of cancer recurrence, the interval between colonoscopies may be extended, typically to every 3–5 years. However, the specific schedule should be determined by your healthcare provider based on your individual case.
4. Lifelong surveillance
In some cases, individuals with a history of colorectal cancer may require lifelong surveillance to monitor for cancer recurrence or the development of new polyps.
Additional testing: In addition to colonoscopy, other tests may be recommended as part of your follow-up, such as blood tests to monitor tumor markers, CT scans, or other imaging studies to check for metastasis (spread of cancer), and regular physical examinations [6].
Adherence to recommendations: It’s crucial to adhere to your healthcare provider’s recommended follow-up schedule and undergo any additional testing as advised. Regular follow-up is essential for early detection of any cancer recurrence or new polyps, as early intervention can lead to better outcomes.
Lifestyle and health maintenance: In addition to medical follow-up, maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and avoidance of tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption, can help reduce the risk of cancer recurrence and other health problems. Follow-up for rectal cancer typically involves a combination of medical evaluations, imaging studies, and endoscopic procedures to monitor for cancer recurrence and assess the effectiveness of treatment. The specific follow-up plan may vary depending on the stage of cancer, the type of treatment received, and individual patient factors [7].
Here’s a general guideline for follow-up after rectal cancer treatment, including endoscopic procedures:
This evaluation may include physical examinations, blood tests, and imaging studies such as CT scans.
![](/media/chapter/a043Y00000zXAzDQAW/a093Y00001g54hbQAA/media/F4.png)
Figure 4.
Local recurrence at enterocolic anastomosis end-side.
In addition to endoscopy, imaging studies such as CT scans may be recommended periodically to check for any signs of cancer recurrence or metastasis to nearby lymph nodes or distant organs. Tumor marker testing: Blood tests to monitor tumor markers (e.g., CEA—carcinoembryonic antigen) may be part of your follow-up plan. Elevated levels of these markers can sometimes indicate cancer recurrence. Stool testing: Periodic stool testing for blood or other markers may be recommended to check for any signs of rectal cancer recurrence or new growths. Long-term surveillance: The frequency of follow-up examinations and tests may decrease over time if there are no signs of cancer recurrence. After several years of surveillance with no issues, follow-up intervals may be extended [9]. Adherence to recommendations: It’s crucial to adhere to your healthcare provider’s recommended follow-up schedule and undergo any necessary tests and procedures. Regular follow-up is essential for early detection of any cancer recurrence or new growths. Lifestyle and health maintenance: Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption, can help reduce the risk of cancer recurrence and improve overall health.
5. Colonoscopy in colorectal cancer diagnosis
The colonoscope is inserted via anus to rectum and advanced through all of the colon until the cecum, and terminal ileum. The colonoscope inspects the entire mucosa of any lesions—tumors, polyps, ulcerations, or diverticula. Suspicion of any lesion observed may take the specimen for histopathology analyses, which is an important step to confirm the diagnosis. Assess the size, type, and location of the lesions from the anal orifice and this is an important information for the treatment.
The diagnosis of neoplasm after colorectal treatment as local recurrence and new polyps or tumors is used by colonoscopy follow-up for surveillance and monitoring. The screening for tumors and other lesions like inflammatory bowel disease, diverticulosis and diverticulitis, and bleeding is carried out [10].
6. Treatment options for colorectal cancer
Surgical treatment is the most important treatment for colorectal cancer for stage 0 to stage III by endoscopic, laparoscopic, or open approach.
Polypectomy: Removal of small, benign polyps and tumors involved just mucosa during a colonoscopy. Local excision: Removal of small, early stage cancers without affecting a significant portion of the colon or rectum.
Segmental colectomy: Removal of the portion of the colon with lymphadenectomy in V shape the tip of V is to mesentery. The remaining healthy sections are anastomosed.
Right or left hemicolectomy with lymphadenectomy and anastomosis with or without protection.
Anterior resection with primary anastomosis, anterior resection with Hartmann procedure, with end left-sided colostomy.
Abdominoperineal resection with end colostomy for rectal cancer low situation below 4 cm from the anal orifice.
Total colectomy: Removal of the entire colon with enterorectal or anal anastomosis with ileostomy protection of synchronous multiple tumors in the rectum and colon [12].
Surgery may also be used to remove metastatic lesions in other organs, such as the liver (atypical lobectomy) or lungs.
Chemotherapy involves the use of drugs to destroy malignant cells or inhibit their growth and division. Neoadjuvant treatment can be used before surgery, adjuvant after surgery, or as the primary treatment for advanced colorectal cancer (Stage III or IV).
Combination chemotherapy regimens are often used, including drugs like 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), capecitabine, oxaliplatin, and irinotecan [13].
Targeted therapies, such as cetuximab and bevacizumab, may be added to chemotherapy for specific cases.
Radiation therapy uses high-energy X-rays and it may be used in combination with chemotherapy (chemoradiation) to shrink tumors before surgery to treat rectal cancer.
Radiation therapy can also relieve symptoms in advanced cases by shrinking tumors that are causing obstruction or bleeding.
6.1 Follow-up colonoscopy
The first follow-up colonoscopy is usually scheduled within the first year after the completion of your initial treatment. The timing may vary depending on the stage and aggressiveness of the cancer.
Common recommendations are as follows: High-risk situations (e.g., advanced cancer, positive lymph nodes, or incomplete resection): Colonoscopy every 3–6 months for the first 2–3 years. Intermediate risk: Colonoscopy every 6–12 months for the first 2–3 years. Low risk: Colonoscopy every 1–3 years after the initial follow-up.
7. Advances in colonoscopy technology
8. Future directions and research
My retrospective observational study for 5 years between 2014 and 2019 about pelvic recurrence after surgical treatment of rectal cancer is as follows: 219 patients from three surgical centers in Romania, among which 213 of them were treated surgically in three surgical centers in Romania and three of them underwent procedures for treatment of rectal cancer: 39 patients—anterior resection with Hartmann’s procedure, 130 patients—anterior resection of rectosigmoid with colorectal anastomosis, and 44 patients—abdominoperineal resection, follow-up for 2 years and pelvic recurrence reported in 19 patients, of whom two patients were shown to have anastomosis recurrence and the highest recurrence rate was reported after Hartmann’s procedure. Patients underwent postoperative follow-up for at least 2 years (at 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and 2 years), consisting of anamnesis,;clinical examination; abdominal and pelvic ultrasound; chest radiography; colonoscopy, ultrasound (U/S), CT scan, and MRI (Table 1).
Surgical procedure | No. of patients | |
---|---|---|
Abdominoperineal resection | 44 | 20.65% |
Rectosigmoidian resection with ileostomy | 34 | 15.96% |
Rectosigmoidian resection without ileostomy | 96 | 45.07% |
Hartmann procedure | 39 | 18.30% |
Table 1.
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