Nano to Macro Production and Applications of Chalcogenides

Abstract

Chalcogenides are basically one chalcogen anion with a more electropositive cation. Selenium, Tellurium and Sulfur based chalcogenides are used widely with a variety of applications. Chalcogenides are known as an IR transmission and high reflective index, with a wide range of applications in catalyst technologies and sensing devices. It is possible to make chalcogenides in various forms like nanocrystals, thin films and bulk crystals based on the requirement. Chalcogenides are categorized as binary (2°), ternary (3°), quaternary (4°), and penternary (5°) based on their structural differences. These compounds have a high degree of versatility for modifying the bandgap without the use of hazardous components. The structural and chemical property analysis will help us to tailor the chalcogenides-based material for the suitable application and reveal the science behind this important class of materials. The diverse size synthesis of chalcogenides, encompassing nano, micro, and macro scales, is crucial for tailoring their properties to meet specific applications, ranging from nanoscale innovations in quantum dots for advanced electronics to microscale developments in thin-film solar cells for efficient photovoltaics, and macroscale applications in solid-state memory devices and radiation detectors, showcasing the versatile impact of size-tailored chalcogenides across a spectrum of technologies.

1. Introduction

Chalcogenides, compounds composed of chalcogens (Group 16 elements like sulfur, selenium, and tellurium) with metals or metalloids, possess a range of remarkable physical properties [1]. Their electrical characteristics can vary widely, with some chalcogenides exhibiting metallic conductivity, while others are semiconductors or insulators. Many chalcogenides have a high refractive index, making them valuable in optical devices. They often exhibit non-linear optical behavior, such as second harmonic generation, making them vital in photonic applications [2]. Chalcogenides are also known for their ability to undergo phase transitions, switching between amorphous and crystalline states, which is crucial in data storage technologies. These materials can be engineered to exhibit superconductivity, high thermoelectric efficiency, or even ferroelectric properties. Additionally, their strong bonding capabilities and ability to form stable glasses enable their use in diverse applications, including infrared optics, radiation detection, and semiconductor devices. Chalcogenides’ wide-ranging physical properties make them essential in a multitude of scientific and industrial contexts, from electronics and optics to energy conversion and memory technologies. Figure 1 shows the place of chalcogenides in periodic table.

Figure 1.

Chalcogenides in periodic table.

Chalcogenides exhibit diverse structural properties owing to their unique compositions and bonding characteristics [3]. These materials can form a variety of crystal structures, including simple cubic, hexagonal, and tetragonal, depending on the specific chalcogen and metal elements involved. The presence of lone pair electrons in chalcogens often leads to distortions in their crystal structures and the formation of layered or chain-like arrangements. Moreover, chalcogenides can transition between amorphous and crystalline states, a property crucial for their application in phase-change memory devices [4]. These structural features are central to the wide-ranging utility of chalcogenides in fields like solid-state physics, materials science, and electronics, where their structural adaptability allows for tailoring their properties to meet specific requirements.

The bonding properties of chalcogenides are a defining characteristic of these compounds, stemming from the interactions between chalcogens (Group 16 elements) and metals or metalloids [5]. Chalcogenides typically exhibit covalent or polar covalent bonds, which involve the sharing of electrons between the chalcogen and the metalloid. The nature of these bonds can lead to unique properties like strong optical responses, as chalcogenides often possess high refractive indices and non-linear optical behavior. Chalcogenides’ ability to form stable glasses is attributed to the covalent bonding network, making them valuable in optical and infrared applications. Moreover, the presence of lone pair electrons in chalcogens can result in polar bonds, impacting the structural and electronic properties of these materials. These bonding properties are at the heart of chalcogenides’ versatility, enabling their use in a wide range of applications, from semiconductor devices to optical components and data storage technologies. Figure 2 represents the types of bonding and structure of chalcogen elements with cadmium atom.

Figure 2.

Different bonding and structure in chalcogenides.

The optical properties of chalcogenides are of paramount importance due to their wide-ranging applications in optics, photonics, and infrared technology [6]. Chalcogenides typically exhibit a high refractive index, allowing for efficient light confinement and propagation. Their ability to efficiently transmit infrared radiation, often spanning the mid- and far-infrared regions, makes them vital in thermal imaging devices, night vision technology, and sensing applications. Chalcogenide glasses can display non-linear optical behavior, such as second harmonic generation and four-wave mixing, making them invaluable in photonic applications like optical amplifiers and frequency converters. Additionally, chalcogenides are known for their strong infrared absorption characteristics, which are exploited in the creation of optical components like lenses, windows, and fibers for use in telecommunications, spectroscopy, and thermal imaging systems. Their remarkable optical properties underpin the versatility and significance of chalcogenides in various fields, ranging from telecommunications to defense and medical imaging.

The electrical properties of chalcogenides are highly diverse and can vary widely depending on their composition and structure. Many chalcogenides are semiconductors, meaning they have intermediate electrical conductivity, and their electrical behavior can be manipulated through doping or alloying [7]. Some chalcogenides, like bismuth telluride (Bi₂Te₃), exhibit excellent thermoelectric properties, efficiently converting heat differentials into electricity. On the other hand, certain chalcogenides are metallic in nature, offering high electrical conductivity. Notably, phase-change chalcogenides can rapidly switch between amorphous and crystalline states, providing the basis for non-volatile memory devices. The ability to tailor the electrical properties of chalcogenides makes them essential in a wide array of applications, including electronics, thermoelectric power generation, memory technologies, and beyond. Their adaptability and unique electrical characteristics are central to their enduring significance in science and industry.

The transport properties of chalcogenides are a fundamental aspect of their behavior and play a critical role in various applications. These materials exhibit diverse transport characteristics, including electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and carrier mobility, which can be tuned by modifying their composition and structure [8]. Chalcogenides like bismuth telluride (Bi₂Te₃) and lead telluride (PbTe) are renowned for their exceptional thermoelectric properties, enabling efficient conversion of heat into electricity, which is valuable for power generation and cooling systems. Additionally, chalcogenides like molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) and tungsten di selenide (WSe₂) exhibit intriguing electronic and thermal transport properties, making them essential in the development of two-dimensional materials for electronic and optoelectronic applications. Understanding and manipulating the transport properties of chalcogenides are central to harnessing their full potential in areas such as energy conversion, semiconductors, and emerging nanotechnologies.

2. Various forms of chalcogenides and its production

Chalcogenides are synthesized across a wide spectrum of production sizes, from the nanoscale to the macroscale, offering a versatile range of materials for diverse applications. At the nanoscale, chalcogenides are engineered as nanoparticles, quantum dots, and nanowires, finding utility in nanoelectronics, quantum computing, and advanced sensors. In the microscale realm, chalcogenides are employed in the fabrication of integrated circuits, optical devices, and infrared optics, enabling high-performance telecommunications and thermal imaging. On a macroscopic level, these compounds are utilized in the production of thin-film solar cells, semiconductor devices, and superconductors, contributing to renewable energy, data storage, and cutting-edge technologies, demonstrating their adaptability and significance across various industries and scales.

2.1 Nano scale synthesis

Nanoscale synthesis of chalcogenides involves precision techniques tailored to create materials at the atomic and molecular levels. Common methods include chemical precipitation, where chalcogen precursors react with metal salts in a solvent to produce chalcogenide nanoparticles through controlled chemical reactions. The sol-gel method employs hydrolysis and condensation of precursor compounds in a solution, yielding highly uniform nanomaterials and thin films. Hydrothermal synthesis occurs in high-temperature, high-pressure aqueous environments, allowing for well-defined chalcogenide nanostructures with precise morphologies. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is instrumental for depositing chalcogenide nanoparticles and thin films on substrates by thermally decomposing precursor gases, granting researchers exact control over nanostructure growth on surfaces. These nanoscale synthesis techniques are fundamental to applications in nanoelectronics, quantum dots, sensors, and other cutting-edge technologies, where tailored nanomaterial properties are essential.

2.1.1 Chemical precipitation

Chemical precipitation is a widely used method in chemistry for the creation of solid particles from dissolved substances by introducing a chemical reaction that leads to the formation of insoluble products [9]. The process is shown in Figure 3. A classic example is the synthesis of metal hydroxides by adding a base, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), to a metal salt solution, resulting in the precipitation of metal hydroxides. For instance, when sodium hydroxide is added to a solution containing copper sulphate (CuSO₄), it forms copper hydroxide, which precipitates as a solid. This technique is essential in various applications, including water treatment to remove impurities, the synthesis of nanoparticles, and the recovery of valuable metal ions from industrial wastewater. Chemical precipitation allows for efficient separation and purification processes, making it a valuable tool in both laboratory settings and industrial applications.

Figure 3.

Precipitation method.

2.1.2 Sol-gel method

The sol-gel method stands as a versatile technique in chalcogenide materials science, particularly in the production of chalcogenide glasses and thin films. Figure 4 shows the process of sol-gel method. This method involves the synthesis of chalcogenide compounds, combining elements like sulfur, selenium, or tellurium with metal or metalloid components, in a precursor solution. Through a precisely controlled chemical process, this solution transforms into a sol, forming a colloidal suspension of nanoscale chalcogenide particles [10]. This sol is subsequently gelled, typically by initiating further chemical reactions, resulting in the creation of a three-dimensional network of chalcogenide material. An exemplary application of the sol-gel method is the production of chalcogenide glass fibres. By using this approach, the material’s composition, structure, and optical properties can be tailored with precision, leading to the production of high-quality chalcogenide optical fibers essential for infrared optics, telecommunications, and sensing applications. The sol-gel technique enables meticulous control over chalcogenide properties, making it a fundamental method in the development of advanced photonic devices and optical components.

Figure 4.

Sol-gel method.

2.1.3 Hydrothermal synthesis

Hydrothermal synthesis is a method employed in the production of chalcogenides, particularly chalcogenide nanomaterials and crystals, by subjecting precursor solutions to high-temperature and high-pressure conditions in an autoclave as shown in Figure 5. This technique is notably used in the synthesis of cadmium selenide (CdSe) quantum dots [11]. In a typical process, a precursor solution containing cadmium and selenium salts is sealed in the autoclave and heated under controlled conditions. The elevated temperature and pressure promote the growth of crystalline CdSe nanoparticles. Hydrothermal synthesis allows for precise control over the size and properties of the resulting chalcogenide nanomaterials, making it essential in nanotechnology and the development of quantum dot-based technologies, including photodetectors, solar cells, and biological imaging agents.

Figure 5.

Hydrothermal method.

2.2 Microscale synthesis

Microscale synthesis of chalcogenides involves the creation of chalcogenide materials on a miniature to small scale. One of the primary methods used for this purpose is physical vapour deposition (PVD), where chalcogenide materials are produced through processes like evaporation and sputtering. In PVD, chalcogenide materials are vaporized and then condensed onto a substrate, forming thin films or coatings with precise thickness and high uniformity. This approach is crucial for applications like integrated circuits and optical devices, where microscale chalcogenide materials are utilized to develop advanced electronics, telecommunications components, and optical coatings, taking advantage of their unique electrical and optical properties.

2.2.1 Physical vapor deposition (PVD)

Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is a widely used technique for depositing chalcogenide thin films onto substrates. The PVD process is shown in Figure 6. One common example of PVD in chalcogenide technology is the fabrication of phase-change memory devices [12]. In this process, a chalcogenide material, often a blend of elements like germanium, antimony, and tellurium (GST), is heated to create vapour in a vacuum chamber. The vapour then condenses on a substrate, forming a thin chalcogenide film. This film’s properties can be controlled by adjusting deposition parameters like temperature and pressure. Phase-change memory devices exploit the unique properties of chalcogenides that can rapidly switch between amorphous and crystalline phases, making them invaluable in non-volatile memory technologies. PVD ensures the precise deposition of chalcogenide materials, enabling the development of advanced memory storage devices in the electronics industry.

Figure 6.

Physical vapor deposition.

2.2.2 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a versatile technique for the synthesis of chalcogenide thin films and coatings. Figure 7 shows the working mechanism of CVD method. In CVD, chalcogenide precursor gases are thermally decomposed on a substrate, forming chalcogenide materials in a controlled manner. This method offers precise control over film thickness, composition, and microstructure, making it invaluable for applications like semiconductor device manufacturing, optical devices, and surface coatings [13]. By adjusting parameters such as temperature, pressure, and precursor gases, CVD enables the engineering of chalcogenide materials with tailored properties, playing a crucial role in various industries where high-quality thin films are essential for advanced electronics, optics, and protective coatings.

Figure 7.

Chemical vapor deposition.

2.3 Macroscale synthesis

Macroscale synthesis of chalcogenides involves the production of bulk chalcogenide materials for a wide range of applications. Techniques such as solid-state synthesis and chemical reactions are typically employed to create chalcogenides on a larger scale. In solid-state synthesis, chalcogen and metal precursors are mixed and heated to high temperatures, enabling chemical reactions that result in the formation of bulk chalcogenide compounds. This method is crucial in the production of materials for applications like thermoelectric devices, superconductors, and infrared optics, where macroscopic chalcogenide materials with specific properties are needed. Macroscale chalcogenide synthesis contributes to the advancement of various industries, such as energy, electronics, and defense, where these materials play a pivotal role in enabling innovative technologies and products.

2.3.1 Solid-state synthesis

Solid-state synthesis is a fundamental method for the bulk production of chalcogenides as shown in Figure 8. In this process, chalcogen and metal precursors are mixed and heated to high temperatures, causing chemical reactions that lead to the formation of chalcogenide compounds [14]. This technique is widely used to create bulk chalcogenide materials for various applications, such as thermoelectric devices, superconductors, and infrared optics. Solid-state synthesis allows for the controlled fabrication of macroscopic chalcogenide materials with tailored properties, enabling the development of advanced materials for industries like energy, electronics, and defense.

Figure 8.

Solid state synthesis.

2.3.2 Zone refining

Zone refining is a specialized purification technique applied to high-purity macro-scale chalcogenide materials. In this method, a molten zone is gradually moved along a solid rod or ingot of chalcogenide material, selectively segregating impurities from the crystalline structure [15]. As the impurities are pushed to the end of the rod, a high-purity region is left behind. Zone refining is particularly useful in industries where ultrapure chalcogenides are essential, such as the semiconductor industry, where even trace impurities can significantly impact the performance of electronic devices. This method ensures the production of high-purity chalcogenide materials that meet stringent quality requirements, making it a crucial process for the manufacturing of advanced electronic components and other applications demanding exceptional material purity.

2.3.3 Crystal growth

Crystal growth of chalcogenides is a vital process in producing high-quality single crystals or crystalline materials with specific properties [16]. Techniques such as Bridgman-Stockbarger, Czochralski, and the floating zone method are commonly employed. The different crystal growth methods are shown in Figure 9. These methods involve the controlled cooling of chalcogenide melts or the growth of crystals from a seed crystal in a controlled atmosphere. Crystal growth allows to produce well-ordered chalcogenide structures, which are essential for applications in solid-state electronics, lasers, and photodetectors, where the precise arrangement of atoms in the crystal lattice influences the material’s electrical, optical, and thermal properties.

Figure 9.

Crystal growth methods.

2.3.4 Melt quenching

Melt quenching is a fundamental method for producing chalcogenide glasses, amorphous materials that incorporate chalcogen elements (sulfur, selenium, tellurium) and metals or metalloids. The whole process is shown in Figure 10. In this process, a controlled blend of these constituents is heated to high temperatures until it becomes a molten liquid. The molten chalcogenide mixture is then rapidly cooled or “quenched” to room temperature, preventing the formation of a crystalline structure and locking the material into an amorphous state [17]. Notable examples include the synthesis of arsenic trisulphide (As₂S₃) chalcogenide glass, which is widely used in infrared optics and optical fibers due to its excellent transparency in the infrared region. Another example is the production of germanium selenide (GeSe) glasses, which are essential in non-linear optics and photonic devices. Melt quenching offers precise control over chalcogenide glass composition, enabling the tailoring of optical and electrical properties for various applications, ranging from thermal imaging to data transmission systems.

Figure 10.

Melt quenching.

3. Applications based on magnitudes of the material

Chalcogenides find applications across various scales, from the nanoscale to the macroscale, offering a wide range of possibilities in different fields. Chalcogenides offer a versatile toolkit for scientists and engineers to tailor materials to meet specific requirements, whether at the nanoscale for cutting-edge nanotechnology or at the macroscale for practical applications that impact our daily lives. Their versatility is reflected in their wide-ranging applications across different scales.

3.1 Nanoscale

• Nanoelectronics: Chalcogenides play a pivotal role in nanoelectronics, where their unique properties are harnessed for a wide range of applications [18]. One prominent example is the utilization of phase-change chalcogenide materials like GeSbTe (germanium-antimony-tellurium) in rewritable optical and electrical storage devices. These materials can rapidly switch between amorphous and crystalline states, enabling data storage in products such as DVDs and phase-change memory devices. Chalcogenide-based resistive switching devices, exemplified by Ag-Ge-S or Cu-Te-S based compounds, are employed in non-volatile memory technologies like resistive random-access memory (ReRAM). Chalcogenides also find use in emerging field-effect transistors, as in the case of black phosphorus-chalcogenide heterostructures, for their superior charge transport properties. These examples underscore the significant impact of chalcogenides on the development of cutting-edge nano electronic components and memory technologies.

• Quantum dots: Quantum dots, which are nanoscale semiconductor structures, often employ chalcogenides and are influential in various applications [19]. Chalcogenide quantum dots, such as cadmium selenide (CdSe) or lead selenide (PbSe), exhibit unique electronic and optical properties due to quantum confinement effects. They are used extensively in nanotechnology and biological imaging. For instance, CdSe quantum dots emit bright and tunable fluorescence, making them valuable in fluorescent tagging and tracking of biological molecules and cells, and in quantum dot solar cells, where they efficiently convert sunlight into electricity. PbSe quantum dots, on the other hand, are well-suited for infrared photodetectors and sensors due to their sensitivity in the near-infrared region. These examples emphasize the critical role of chalcogenide quantum dots in advancing fields like nanotechnology, biotechnology, and renewable energy.

• Nanowires: Chalcogenide nanowires are one of the most promising nanostructures, with applications ranging from electronics to sensing [20]. For instance, tellurium nanowires, produced through methods like the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) technique, are used in phase-change memory devices, offering high-speed data storage and low power consumption. In thermoelectric applications, bismuth chalcogenide nanowires, such as Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3, exhibit excellent thermoelectric properties, enabling efficient energy conversion from heat differentials. Additionally, chalcogenide nanowires have proven valuable in sensor technologies, such as zinc selenide nanowires used in highly sensitive gas sensors. These examples showcase the versatility and functionality of chalcogenide nanowires, which are central to many emerging technologies and hold great promise in enhancing the performance of various devices.

• Catalysis: Chalcogenides play a significant role in catalysis, particularly in hydrodesulphurization (HDS) of crude oil. Transition metal chalcogenides, like molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) and tungsten disulfide (WS₂), are essential components in HDS catalysts that remove sulfur impurities from petroleum products, improving their environmental and safety qualities. These catalysts promote the desulphurization process by breaking the sulfur-carbon bonds in hydrocarbons [21]. Moreover, chalcogenide materials have also demonstrated promise in electrocatalysis, where they are used in hydrogen evolution reactions, contributing to the development of clean and sustainable energy technologies. These examples underscore the critical role of chalcogenides in various catalytic processes, including those essential to produce cleaner fuels and the advancement of renewable energy sources.

3.2 Microscale

• Integrated circuits: Chalcogenides are increasingly finding application in integrated circuits (ICs), where their unique electrical properties are harnessed for memory and logic devices [22]. Phase-change chalcogenides like GeSbTe are a prime example, as they form the basis of non-volatile phase-change memory (PCM) devices. These PCM devices offer advantages like fast read/write speeds, low power consumption, and high endurance, making them integral in ICs, including storage-class memory in data centres. Chalcogenide-based selector devices, such as the ovonic threshold switch (OTS), are also crucial for building 3D NAND flash memory arrays, where their non-linear current-voltage characteristics are instrumental in memory cell isolation and addressing. The integration of chalcogenides into ICs represents a significant advancement in electronics, enabling more efficient, compact, and higher-capacity memory and logic devices for a wide range of applications, from smartphones to data storage solutions.

• Optical devices: Chalcogenides play a fundamental role in the development of advanced optical devices due to their exceptional optical properties. Chalcogenide glass fibers and waveguides are crucial components in optical communication systems, allowing the efficient transmission of signals in the infrared region [23]. Chalcogenide materials also serve as the basis for infrared lenses and windows, essential in thermal imaging cameras and sensors. Additionally, chalcogenide micro structured optical fibers, like photonic crystal fibers, are used for supercontinuum generation, enabling broad-spectrum light sources for applications in spectroscopy, medical imaging, and sensing. Their superior nonlinear optical properties make chalcogenides indispensable in the creation of devices like optical parametric oscillators, which produce tunable and coherent light for a variety of scientific and industrial applications. These examples highlight the central role of chalcogenides in advancing optical technologies and applications.

• Infrared optics: Chalcogenides are integral to the field of infrared optics, offering unparalleled capabilities for capturing and manipulating thermal radiation in various applications. Chalcogenide materials, such as amorphous chalcogenide glasses, are used to create lenses and windows that efficiently transmit infrared radiation while maintaining high optical quality [24]. These components are essential in thermal imaging cameras for applications like surveillance, defense, and industrial inspection. Moreover, chalcogenide materials like zinc selenide (ZnSe) are used in the construction of optical components for carbon dioxide (CO₂) laser systems, which are employed in materials processing, surgery, and atmospheric monitoring. The exceptional transmittance of chalcogenides in the infrared region allows for precise, high-resolution imaging and sensing, making them indispensable in the development of state-of-the-art infrared optics.

3.3 Macroscale

• Photovoltaics: Chalcogenides have become prominent players in the field of photovoltaics, particularly in the development of thin-film solar cells. Notable examples include cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), which are used as the active absorber materials in these solar cells. CdTe-based solar panels have seen widespread adoption due to their cost-effectiveness and efficiency in converting sunlight into electricity [25]. CIGS solar cells offer a versatile alternative, with tunable composition for improved performance. The use of chalcogenides in photovoltaics underscores their pivotal role in renewable energy technology, contributing to the transition to sustainable power sources and reducing our reliance on fossil fuels.

• Semiconductor devices: Certainly! Chalcogenides are indispensable in semiconductor devices, serving as the foundation for various components crucial to modern electronics. Phase-change chalcogenide materials, such as GeSbTe, are central to rewritable optical and electrical storage devices, including CDs, DVDs, and phase-change memory [26]. These materials can rapidly switch between amorphous and crystalline states, allowing for high-speed data storage and retrieval. Chalcogenide-based non-volatile memory technologies, such as resistive random-access memory (ReRAM) with Ag-Ge-S or Cu-Te compounds, are gaining attention for their potential in future electronic applications. The unique electrical and optical properties of chalcogenides are also leveraged in photodetectors, infrared sensors, optical components for night vision technology, telecommunications, and high-speed data communication. CdTe-based radiation detectors, on the other hand, capitalize on cadmium telluride’s high sensitivity to ionizing radiation, making them pivotal for applications in nuclear science, medical imaging, homeland security, and industrial radiography. Chalcogenides play a foundational role in semiconductor devices, contributing to a wide range of electronic, photonic, and radiographic applications.

• Thermoelectric materials: Chalcogenides have emerged as crucial materials in the field of thermoelectric power generation and solid-state cooling. Certain chalcogenide compounds, such as bismuth telluride (Bi₂Te₃) and lead telluride (PbTe), exhibit excellent thermoelectric properties [27]. These materials can efficiently convert heat differentials into electricity, making them vital in thermoelectric generators for applications like waste heat recovery and remote power sources. In addition, chalcogenides have found use in thermoelectric coolers, which rely on the Peltier effect to provide compact, solid-state cooling solutions. For instance, bismuth antimony telluride (BiSbTe) compounds are employed in portable refrigeration and microelectronics thermal management. These examples highlight the significance of chalcogenides in enhancing energy efficiency and offering sustainable cooling solutions in various industries.

• Superconductors: Chalcogenides have played a significant role in the development of high-temperature superconductors (HTS), a ground-breaking class of materials that can conduct electricity without resistance at elevated temperatures [28]. Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa₂Cu₃O₇) and bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO) are two prominent examples of chalcogenide based HTS materials. These compounds exhibit superconducting properties at temperatures much higher than traditional low-temperature superconductors, making them attractive for practical applications. Chalcogenide-based HTS materials are employed in a range of technologies, including the development of more efficient power transmission lines and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines, where superconducting magnets provide high magnetic fields for medical diagnostics. These advances in HTS, enabled by chalcogenides, have the potential to revolutionize multiple industries by improving energy efficiency and enabling novel technologies.

• Infrared imaging: Chalcogenides are integral to the field of infrared imaging, providing optical materials crucial for capturing and visualizing thermal radiation. Chalcogenide glass, like germanium selenide (GeSe) and zinc sulphide (ZnS), is commonly used in the construction of lenses and windows for thermal imaging cameras and sensors [29]. These components allow the transmission of infrared radiation while maintaining high optical quality, facilitating the detection of temperature variations in objects and environments. The versatility of chalcogenide materials is evident in their use in applications such as surveillance, defense, and industrial inspection, where thermal imaging technology enhances situational awareness, safety, and predictive maintenance, exemplifying their pivotal role in advancing infrared imaging capabilities.

• Lubricants and coatings: Chalcogenides have found applications in lubricants and coatings, primarily due to their exceptional wear-resistant properties. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), a common chalcogenide compound, is often used as a solid lubricant in extreme conditions, where its layered structure reduces friction and minimizes wear in components like automotive engine parts and industrial machinery [30]. Additionally, chalcogenide coatings, such as diamond-like carbon (DLC) films containing chalcogenide elements, provide excellent anti-wear and anti-corrosion properties. These coatings are used on various surfaces, including cutting tools, aerospace components, and medical devices, to enhance their durability and reduce friction. Chalcogenides’ role in lubrication and coating technologies underscores their significance in prolonging the lifespan and performance of a wide range of mechanical systems and devices.

• Chalcogenide glasses: Chalcogenide glasses are a fascinating class of materials composed primarily of chalcogens like sulfur, selenium, or tellurium, often in combination with other elements. These glasses exhibit unique optical, electrical, and thermal properties, making them integral to various technological applications [31]. An exemplary chalcogenide glass is amorphous arsenic trisulphide (As₂S₃), widely used in optical components such as optical fibers, lenses, and windows for infrared applications. Additionally, chalcogenide glasses are pivotal in the development of phase-change memory devices, where materials like germanium-antimony-tellurium (GST) serve as the active medium, switching between amorphous and crystalline states to store data. Their ability to efficiently transmit infrared radiation, combined with their non-crystalline structure, makes chalcogenide glasses indispensable in optical communication, data storage, and thermal imaging, emphasizing their versatile role in modern technology (Table 1).

Scale of material	Synthesis methods	Applications	Examples
Nano	Chemical precipitation Sol-gel method Hydrothermal synthesis	Nanoelectronics	GeSbTe; AgGeS; CuTeS
		Quantum Dots	PbSe; CdSe
		Nanowires	Bi2Te3; Sb2Te3
		Catalysis	MoS2; WS2
Micro	Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)	Integrated Circuits	GeSbTe
		Optical Devices	ZnTe
		Infrared Optics	ZnSe
Macro	Solid-state synthesis Zone refining Crystal Growth Melt quenching	Superconductors	YBa2Cu3O7; BSCCO
		Infrared Imaging	GeSe; ZnS
		Lubricants and Coatings	MoS2
		Chalcogenide glasses	As2S3; GeSbTe

Table 1.

Comparison of chalcogenides and its various forms.

4. Conclusion

In conclusion chalcogenides hold significant societal applications across various forms, contributing to advancements in technology, energy, and healthcare. In the field of electronics, chalcogenide materials are crucial for non-volatile memory devices, enhancing the efficiency and storage capacity of electronic devices. In the renewable energy sector, chalcogenides, particularly in the form of thin-film solar cells like cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), play a pivotal role in harnessing solar energy for sustainable power generation. Chalcogenide glasses, known for their infrared transparency, find applications in optical fibers for high-speed telecommunications, facilitating global connectivity. Furthermore, the development of chalcogenide-based sensors and detectors contributes to advancements in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and security systems. The societal impact of chalcogenides is underscored by their diverse applications, improving everyday life through technological innovations, sustainable energy solutions, and enhanced communication systems. Our Present work will give an overview of the importance of different-scale synthesis of chalcogenides lies in its capacity to precisely tailor material properties, enabling diverse applications from nanoscale electronics to macroscale energy solutions.