I Want My Grandchildren to Communicate in the Local Language: Interrogating the Intergenerational Communication Landscape in Ghana

Abstract

The study used a cross-sectional design to obtain data on communication between grandparents and their grandchildren. Quantitative data were collected from 360 selected men and women aged 50+, whilst qualitative data were collected from 30 individuals. The results demonstrate that the study participants (80%) mostly used the verbal mode of communication. The preferred languages for intergenerational communication are Dagaati, Dagbani, Dagomba, Dangbe, Ewe, Fante, Ga, Guan and Twi. However, the grandchildren prefer to speak the English language at school and at home. This makes it difficult for uneducated and less educated grandparents, who then resort to the use of signs and symbols in communicating with grandchildren. Intermarriages and the urban-rural divide have adverse impacts on grandparents’ communication with their grandchildren. Significantly, intergenerational communication facilitates the transmission of cultural norms and values from one generation to the other. The challenges encountered contextually encompass hearing problems, challenge of understanding what is said, not being fluent in spoken language, as well as physical barriers. Intergenerational communication can be improved through improving listening skills, learning to manage emotions, being open-minded, being empathetic, being receptive to feedback, etc. It is concluded that communication skills are vital to healthy intergenerational communication including intergenerational relationship building dynamics.

1. Introduction

1.1 The family context

Family is the building block of every society. Family is not restricted to people living in one household at a time [1] nor limited to blood ties [2], residential arrangements and legal status of a group of people [3]. The functions of a family are derived from its definition. Families are expected to provide economic support, inherited social status, education, protection and care of the sick, religious training, leisure time and entertainment, emotional support [4] and socialisation [5, 6, 7]. Nukunya [7] notes that the family is a social arrangement in which individuals have extensive reciprocal duties, obligations and responsibilities to relations. Other functions of the family include procreation and economic cooperation. Family theorists including [8] document that ‘all societies have families, but their form varies greatly across time and space’. They argue that changing family forms have been because of a variety of issues:

‘the interplay of shifting social and economic conditions, diverse and contested ideals, and the attempts of ordinary people to build their lives amid the constraints of their particular time and place’ [8].

The preceding definition by Gerson and Torres [8] supports the notion of the family being defined by its functions and types.

There are two types of family, the nuclear and extended family [1]. The nuclear family is constituted by father, mother, and children while the extended family is a constellation of different nuclear families within a lineage in Ghana. The extended family is constituted by grandparents, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces and cousins; people who transmit values [9, 10]. The extended family may constitute a residential group or non-residential group [7]. Other forms of family encompass blended families [11], foster families and adoptive families [12] step-families [13] and single-parent families. Family promotes a sense of community. Hence, efforts should be geared towards maintaining the sacred family bond and traditions held dear, especially among extended family relations [14]. Extended family members provide care and loving support to the sick and unfortunate individuals within the family system. This is a confirmation that the family assists in strengthening, sustaining and revitalising individuals with the capacity to do their best in every sphere of life, contributing to societal, national and global development [15]. Regular interactions among family members create the feeling of belongingness while feeling a sense of responsibility, security and commitment towards all things held dear; albeit personal, economic and social lives [16]. Grandparents are important in shaping and helping in all matters relating to the progression and direction of family members [17]. Penultimately, the nuclear family is crucial in nurturing children and a simple, basic and elementary component of society [18]. The family is a source of identity and a shared history for a given group of people [19].

Family life course development is the undulating pattern of events, observable or anticipated within the family [20, 21]. The contemporary family is characterised by an average period of about 40 to 45 years of married life and goes through three broad cycles: beginning, expanding and contracting stages. From the initial stage of the family cycle, young couples learn the art of homemaking, and it lasts for at least a year. The expanding period has two phases. The first represents periods when babies arrive, and family size expands from two persons to three or more persons. This stage is filled with physical care and supervision, loving and protecting babies and guiding older children [22].

1.2 Human generations

Craft [23] documents that typically, generations cover a span of about 20 years and show variances in the way they act, making them very different from the cohort before and after. The generations are outlined as follows: Silent Generation, born between 1928 and 1945; Baby Boomers, born between 1946 and 1964; Generation X, born between 1965 and 1980; Millennials, born between 1981 and 1996; and Generation Z, born between 1997 and 2012. Generation Alpha refers to people born from 2013 onward. The generations of humans have undergone a drastic change in the manner in which technology is adopted and used. For instance, the younger generation is much more savvy technologically in terms of grasping new technology than the earlier generations. Further, this demonstrates a difference between the actions of generations. This may be an indication of the fact that society is moving at a much faster pace than in previous years. Howe and Strauss [24] believe that the generational differences of groups of today have a drastic effect on the educational system.

Beck and Wade [25] argue that video games have a dramatic effect on the actions of both younger and older generations due mainly to regular access to video games, proposing that games have changed the way people in general and children, in particular, think in contemporary times. In fact, [25] found that in playing games, people including children display seven habits, namely having the opportunity to succeed; the belief that success is due more to luck, gamers are very proficient in teamwork while learning from within their own group; games teach the youth to understand who the boss of the game is and the need to defeat the current boss. Beck and Wade [25] conclude that this scenario causes problems with authority figures within an organisation; gamers need to know their place in life as well as how well they are doing; gamers are aware of their environments; finally, gamers are used to having the option of selecting the right team. Edery and Mollick [26] were in agreement with Beck and Wade that in general games, and most especially video games ‘… can make all the difference between success and failure’ (p. 4). According to them, games drive people to think and change the role of thinking from work to fun.

1.3 Technology and communication

One change in technology is the number of communication channels available to the different generations and the levels of use of each generation with different technology with respect to the methods of communication. Noteworthy is that these may take the form of face-to-face communication and handwritten mail [27]. These were further categorised into human–message interaction and human–human interaction [28]. Human–human communication is defined as any form of communication where an individual talked directly to another individual, including face-to-face and telephone conversations. Human-message interaction is defined as any form of communication not directly associated with a human, such as email and voice mail. A variety of types of methods of communication are available to individuals. They include writing and the delivery of mail(s), telephone. The present study focuses on face-to-face, verbal, non-verbal, written, visual and technology-based (i.e. text messaging and social media) communication.

Human interaction cannot exist without communication. Communication is defined as the process of sharing ideas, thoughts and feelings among people. Information is usually transferred from a source (a person) to a receiver (another person) through a medium (verbal, phone call or chat) which results in feedback [29]. Communication primarily involves making meaning out of symbols in a way that is accepted and widely recognised by a group of people [19]. Humans are social beings and often see themselves as belonging to groups of families and societies. As such, it is considered natural to show kindness, share material possessions with family members, and thereby become distressed when physically alienated from close relations [30]. Frequent communication is crucial in maintaining healthy family life, proper socialisation and is a sure means of resolving conflicts [19]. People view communication as an indispensable skill, essential in facilitating their quest for better lives [31].

Communication is the exchange of information from one person to another person. This can be on a one–on–one basis within a group of people. More often than not, every type of communication exchange involves at least one sender and one receiver. A communication exchange has three different components namely the sender or speaker, the message or content as well as the recipient or listener. There are diverse forms of communication such as verbal communication, non-verbal communication, written communication, visual communication [32, 33], and listening [33]. Listening entails holding eye contact, maintaining good posture, nodding, mirroring the body language of the speaker to show interest, including allowing the speaker to complete his/her entire thoughts. First, in verbal communication, use is made of words, phrases, sentences, conversations, etc. or spoken language to communicate with others including grandchildren. Second, non-verbal communication includes any other communication that is not verbal such as gestures, signs, facial expressions, etc. Third, written communication takes the form of a letter, email, case report or comments on social media. Fourth, the act of listening is one of the crucial parts of communication. Last but not least, the visual dimension of communication occurs with the assistance of visual aids. These entail drawings, illustrations, colours, road signs, symbols, and Argumentative and Alternative (AAC) communication devices (e.g., choice cards, symbol boards, communication books, keyboards, alphabet chats, etc.).

Ghana is a highly multilingual country. Dakubu [34] notes that it has approximately 50 languages. However, the key ones are Akan, Dagaare, Dagbani, Ewe, Ga. Eleven (11) of these languages are taught in schools, whereas a few are used on radio and television stations. The English language is the official language in Ghana [35]. According to Yankah [36], there are other non-Ghanaian languages, such as Hausa is spoken as a lingua franca in the zongos, and in northern Ghana and Arabic, which is learnt in Islamic schools across Ghana but mainly used for religious purposes.

In connection with Dakubu’s [34] arguments, Anyidoho’s [37] documents that several programmes have been initiated in Ghana on teaching and learning in the local Ghanaian languages including National Literacy Acceleration Program (NALAP). NALAP is:

an instructional approach which provides teachers and pupils of the Lower Primary level (KG 1 – P3) with quality literacy materials, effective instruction and public support to read and write in their local language(s) and in English. The methodology seeks to make pupils literate in their local language(s) for a smooth transition to English. Therefore, by P3, it is expected that the pupils would be fully bilingual (p. 227).

According to Anyidoho [37]:

Essentially, the Policy is that, “instruction at the Lower Primary Level (Primary 1 – 3) will be conducted in the pupil’s mother tongue, or in the major Ghanaian language of the local area, while English will be studied as one of the subjects offered at the Lower Primary Level. From Primary 4 onwards, class instruction will be conducted in English; and the Ghanaian language(s) will then be studied as one of the subjects offered. (p. 227)

Previous studies intimate that there is a generational gap between the two distinct generations [38] in terms of communication. Connecting with parents, grandparents, aunties or uncles can help us feel a sense of belonging. Significantly, connecting with parents, grandparents, aunties or uncles can help in feeling a sense of belonging. Research has shown that young people with a strong emotional bond to a grandparent [38] have less chance of being depressed – and vice versa. The generational gap between baby boomers, Generation X and Millennials can lead to miscommunication, misunderstanding and, sometimes, no communication at all. This faulty communication can create generational conflict that may slow production, reduces workplace enjoyment and fosters distrust. Every generation has its own communication style, influenced by the world around them while growing up. The study sought to investigate how intergenerational communication shapes intergenerational interactions and explore paradigm shifts in the dynamics of intergenerational communication. However, understanding context can help provide perspectives and increase awareness and understanding of the diverse communication methods utilised in contemporary times. The research questions for this study were framed around the following three questions: (1) How does intergenerational communication shape intergenerational interactions? (2) What challenges do grandparents encounter in communicating with their grandchildren? (3) How can intergenerational communication be improved?

The chapter is organised as follows: Section 1 introduces the study, Section 2 presents the theoretical framework, Section 3 outlines the methods used, Section 4 presents the study findings, Section 5 discusses the findings and Section 6 concludes the chapter.

2. Theoretical framework

A medley of two theories underpinned this study. They are the Expectancy Violations and the Uses and Gratification theories.

2.1 The expectancy violations theory

This theory argues that different groups develop social or accepted norms of social nature. The basic principle supporting this theory is that cultures create social norms around communication. When the social norms are violated, the receiver may react in different ways depending on the perception and value placed on the individual delivering the message. This theory attempts to explain an individual’s reaction to unexpected behaviour falling outside the boundaries of what is socially expected. According to Burgoon [39], generations also have created their individual social norms of expectations based on which method of communication that is generally accepted. These “expectancies may be particularised for an individual or general to a language community or subgroup” [40]. Expectancy can be defined as a prediction about what will happen in some situations [41]. Burgoon and Hale [42] discussed two forms of expectancy violation, positive and negative. If a positive expectancy violation occurs, the receiver of the communication will perceive the message to be positive, resulting in more favourable communication outcomes. If a negative expectancy violation occurs, the receiver will perceive the message to be negative, resulting in a less favourable communication outcome. Both of these positive and negative forms are reached based on the delivery of the message, that is non-verbal cues to the message and not the content.

Each individual who is involved in communication of any form has certain expectations about the conversation, depending on their relationship to the other party. Burgoon and Hale [41] opine that the communicator places a certain value on the interaction based on characteristics such as gender, attractiveness, reputation and status. In this study, grandparents place value on their interactions based on the characteristics of their status. There is the belief that positively evaluated behaviours would produce positive interpretation(s) and negatively evaluated behaviours would always produce negative interpretation(s). Burgoon and Hale [41] have alluded to the fact that both non-verbal and verbal expectancy violations had an effect on communication.

2.2 Uses and gratification theory

Simply the uses and gratification theory is a concept in which users will choose a media type based on the outcome they expect to gain from it. The original intent of this theory was to determine the role and influence of the media and why individuals chose a particular media type over another. This present study focuses on the given media used by grandparents to communicate with their grandchildren.

Ruggiero [42] has laid out the fact that the problem with the uses and gratification theory had to do with the form of media being used and a more interactive media, or a media form in which the user would gain a response yielding a more positive outcome. However, it has been suggested that there exist six (6) user-oriented areas of interactivity in this context: threats, benefits, sociability, isolation, involvement and inconvenience. In furtherance to this, Rubin and Windahl [43] have noted that the perceived gratification received was enhanced if the method of communication was more interactive. Their research concluded that dependency on a medium or a message results when individuals intentionally seek out information (p. 187). According to Ruggiero [42], the use of the approach of the uses and gratification in defining the selection of media type is no longer perceived as favourable in contemporary times. However, telecommunications and the use of technology could revive the theory. It is, however, worth noting that telecommunications, the use of the Internet, gaming, email, and cellular devices are all forms of interactive media which promote the use of the uses and gratification.

3. Methods

The purpose of this study was to determine how intergenerational communication shapes intergenerational interactions and paradigm shift in the dynamics of intergenerational communication. Use was made of a cross-sectional design in this study in which both quantitative and qualitative tools of data collection were employed in obtaining information from men and women aged 50+. The age range spans between 50 and 85 years. The purposive sampling method was used in the process of sampling. A sample of 360 responses was sought from some section of Ghanaians in the Adenten Municipality and La Nkwantang Municipality in Accra in the Greater Accra region of Ghana. The selection of this study site was due to the fact that the Greater Accra region is one of the most urbanised localities in Ghana and therefore depicts a rich epitome of the speaking of a multiplexity of local languages found across the whole nation due to its cosmopolitan nature. This study’s research question(s) were framed around the following three questions as mentioned earlier: (1) How does intergenerational communication shape intergenerational interactions? (2) What challenges do grandparents encounter in communicating with their grandchildren? (3) How can intergenerational communication be improved?

3.1 Data collection

The research was conducted using questionnaires and semi-structured interview protocol as the major instruments for the research. The quantitative data were collected from 360 selected men and women aged 50+, whilst qualitative data were collected from 30 individuals. Interested and available respondents took part in the study and expressed their views on the phenomenon under study including its effect on familial relations. The participants were given the appropriate information about the research, after which their consent were obtained. Whenever a respondent gave their consent to participate in the study, precisely each was taken through the objectives of the study and guaranteed confidentiality. Participant’s privacy was ensured by protecting the data collected from the participants and ensuring that only the researcher had access to the data. Also, the participants were made aware that they could withdraw their participation at any time in the research and that if for any reason they decided to withdraw from the study, the information they had given would be destroyed.

3.2 Data analysis

The quantitative and qualitative data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 and thematic analysis and managed with Nvivo software version 14, respectively. The answered questionnaires were cleaned and serialised for easy identification. A data entry template for the quantitative data was developed in SPSS. The survey data were then entered into SPSS and were analysed with selected descriptive statistical tools such as frequencies and percentages were used. In the case of the qualitative/interview data, the thematic analysis method of data analysis was the chosen method because of its inherent flexibility [43]. The checklist for analysing qualitative data as outlined by Braun and Clarke [43] as well as the revised version in [44] was employed. These are as follows: 1. Researcher familiarised herself with the data, 2. Generated initial codes, 3. Searched for themes, 4. Reviewed themes, 5. Defined and named themes, before finally 6. producing the report [44]. Hence, responses were read, re-read and initial codes generated, additional reading of transcripts to select themes that evolved were done. The ‘themes were verified against each other and the original data set’ [43]. In ensuring rigour in the analysis, this back-and-forth activity dealt with searching, reviewing, defining (redefining) and naming of themes. Themes were then checked for clarity and unambiguity, and ‘distinctiveness’ [43]. Relevant recurrent themes were then grouped into positive (extent of satisfaction) and negative (challenges) themes. These themes, discussed below, provided information on how intergenerational communication obtained shaped intergenerational relationships by way of capturing the participants’ experiences on the phenomenon studied.

4. Research findings

4.1 Description of sample characteristics

From the findings, the sample for the study consisted of 163 males (44.7%) and 197 females (54.8%) aged 50+. Most of the respondents were situated within the 60–69 and 70–79 age group. The highest educational level attained by most of the respondents was tertiary level (31.9%) of education, with the majority being males. Majority of the respondents (28.1%) were married, whereas the most represented ethnic group or language was Akan (23.3%), with Mour (2.5%) being the least (Table 1). The highest number of children had by the study participants was more than 10 (3.1%), while the least was 1 child (9.7%).

Variables	Gender
Age	Female	Male	Total
50–59	47 (13%)	43 (11.9%)	90 (25%)
60–69	56 (15.6%)	54 (15%)	110 (30.6%)
70–79	65 (18.1%)	45 (12.5%)	110 (30.6%)
80+	29 (8.1%)	21 (5.3%)	50 (13.9%)
Total	197 (54.8%)	163 (44.7%)	360 (100%)
Education
None	19 (5.3%)	11 (3.1%)	30 (8.3%)
Basic	50 (13.9%)	50 (13.9%)	100 (27.8%)
Secondary	57 (15.8%)	58 (16.1%)	115 (31.9%)
Tertiary	50 (13.9%)	65 (18.1%)	115 (31.9%)
Total	176 (48.9%)	184 (51.2%)	360 (100%)
Marital Status
Single	21 (5.8%)	19 (5.2%)	40 (11.1%)
Married	55 (15.3%)	46 (12.8%)	101 (28.1%)
Divorced	35 (9.7%)	15 (4.2%)	50 (13.9%)
Widowed	44 (11.9%)	23 (6.4%)	66 (18.3%)
Separated	30 (8.3%)	33 (9.2%)	63 (17.5%)
Co-habiting	20 (5.6%)	20 (5.6%)	40 (11.1%)
Total	204 (56.7%)	156 (43.3%)	360 (100%)
Ethnicity
Akan	40 (11.1%)	44 (12.2%)	84 (23.3%)
Dagomba	40 (11.1%)	35 (9.7%)	75 (20.8%)
Dangbe	18 (5.0%)	10 (2.8%)	28 (7.8%)
Ewe	13 (3.6%)	10 (2.8%)	23 (6.4%)
Ga	40 (11.1%)	38 (10.6%)	78 (21.7%)
Guan	5 (1.3%)	4 (1.1%)	44 (12.2%)
Hausa	10 (2.8)	9 (2.5%)	19 (5.3%)
Mour	24 (6.7%)	20 (5.6%)	9 (2.5%)
Total	190 (52.7%)	170 (47.3%)	360 (100%)
Number of grandchildren
1	35 (9.7%)
2	39 (10.8%)
3	38 (10.6)
4	51 (17.2%)
5	65 (18.1%)
6	69 (19.2%)
7	18 (5%)
8	13 (3.6%)
9	9 (2.5%)
10	12 (3.3%)
More than 10	11 (3.1%)
Total	360 (100%)

Table 1.

Respondents’ background profile.

4.2 The dynamics of intergenerational communication

The section presents findings on how intergenerational communication shapes intergenerational interactions. It is worth noting that the information in this section is a medley of quantitative and qualitative data.

4.2.1 Importance of communication between grandparents and their grandchildren

Intergenerational communication fosters the transmission of cultural values from older generations (i.e. grandparents) to younger generations (i.e. grandchildren), socialisation, development of communication skills, public speaking, strengthening of intergenerational relationships. Use is made of interview data in this context. These have clearly been outlined in the interview quotes below:

Through communication, we pass on cultural values to the younger generation. This is because language is a means of socialisation (Grandparent 1, Female, 55 years).

Communicating with my grandchildren helps in motivating them and builds their communication skills (Grandparent 2, Female, 58 years).

Communicating well with my grandchildren helps them in the way that they also know how to talk in public (Grandparent 3, Female, 55 years).

Communicating well with my grandchildren helps in strengthening my relationship with them (Grandparent 4, Male, 53 years).

Communicating with my grandchildren has strengthened my relationship with them (Grandparent 5, Female, 54 years).

Socialisation in the context of this chapter takes the form of communication in the family setting with reference to the educational/school contexts. These denote family and education institution or school socialisation.

4.2.2 Mode of communication with grandchildren

In contemporary times, most older parents do not live in the same dwelling places with their children and grandchildren due to some extent to the extended family system’s decline, social change, modernisation, urbanisation and witchcraft accusations, among others. These have necessitated visitation by and from grandparents and grandchildren, respectively. This implies that older adults may visit their children and grandchildren. This visit may be short-term or long-term. Similarly, grandchildren also visit their grandparents during vacations or on holidays or in emergency situations such as illness of parents or travels and a host of others. The visitation of both grandparents and grandchildren has facilitated the transfer of cultural values, coaching on moral uprightness, and establishment and consolidation of relationships with grandchildren. Hence, the observation in the interview data shows that:

…visiting of grandparents helps to instill old cultural values (Grandparent 6, Male, 62 years).

I always speak to them and visit them from time to time (Grandparent 8, Male, 70 years).

I talk with them every single day on how to lead a moral life and through bible reading (Grandparent 9. Female, 51 years).

Visiting and spending much time with grandchildren builds up relationships and bonding with grandparents, especially during most vacations (Grandparents 10, Female, 56 years).

During times that grandparents visit and/or are with their grandchildren, they both engage in a variety of activities such as the playing of games. On the local front, these games include ludo, oware, domino, spar/cards games. The playing of such games induces improvement of mental cognitions igniting of overall interests and sociability. This includes the sharing of life’s lived experiences with grandchildren. The grandparents intimated in the interview data the following:

When we are playing games together such as ludo, I share my life’s experiences with them (Grandparent 11, Female, 54 years).

Communicate by playing (in-person) games with them and also allowing them to express their views (Grandparent 12, Female, 58 years).

… sharing my own experiences in life with them through in-person visits (Grandparent 13, Male, 53 years).

Grandparents who live far away from where their children and grandchildren live, use other modes of communication such as telecommunication to reach out to their grandchildren. They observed the following:

I communicate with my grandchildren through phone calls and also I do visit them regularly (Grandparent 14, Female, 60 years).

My grandchildren are not brought to us. We only speak with then on the telephone and so we are unable to transmit cultural values unto them, the way we would have wanted to (Grandparent 15, Male, 56 years).

I communicate with my grandchildren through telephone calls or visits (Grandparent 16, Male, 81 years).

I communicate with my grandchildren mostly through telephone calls (Grandparent 17, Female, 74 years).

I communicate with my grandchildren through telephone communication (Grandparent 18, Female, 65 years).

I communicate with my grandchildren using text messaging (Grandparent 19, Male, 80 years).

I communicate with my grandchildren through telephone calls, in-person visits and sometimes through social media (Grandparent 20, Male, 62 years).

Older adults’ selection and the concomitant utilisation of telecommunication media (such as telephone calls and text messaging) and diverse social media platforms (e.g. Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and WhatsApp) for intergenerational communication is significant. This is because these have enabled the older generation to pursue and undertake communication with the younger generation(s). From a theoretical viewpoint, Ruggiero [41] confirms this in his argument that it is via the form of media being used and a more interactive media, or a media form in a context in which the user (in this case, older adults) have gained a communication yielding response.

Quite apart from playing games with grandchildren, grandparents tell them stories about life in general. See the quote below:

I communicate with them when they are young and also communicate by sharing stories about my life through in-person visits (Grandparent 21, Female, 55 years).

The benefits of grandparents communicating with their grandchildren comprise bonding with their grandparents, enjoyment in the time spent with grandchildren and happiness for older people (grandparents). For instance:

I bond with my grandchildren through communication and spending time with them (Grandparent 22, Male, 81 years).

My happiest days are the days when my grandchildren visit me (Grandparent 23, Female, 71 years).

The above-mentioned benefits of intergenerational communication have called for an extension in the time spent with grandchildren by grandparents. In other words, the grandparents studied expressed the need for more contact with their grandchildren. This implies that less contact between grandparents and their grandchildren in contemporary times is due to physical barrier(s). Thus, the indication that:

I would want to spend more time with my grandchildren (Grandparent 24, Female, 74 years).

The fact that grandparents wish to spend more time with their grandchildren implies communication, which is indicative of their status in society as the parents of the parents of grandchildren with implications for issues of the bloodline. Hence, being grandparents is a status that warrants the need to see grandchildren and socially interact with them. Stated differently, grandparents’ reputation is at stake when it comes to interacting with their grandchildren, which in turn is valuable. Grandparents also have a reputation for interacting with their grandchildren. Theoretically, this result confirms Burgoon and Hale’s [40] argument that the communicator places a value on the interaction based on characteristics such as reputation and status.

4.2.3 Forms of communication do grandparents use with grandchildren

The modes of communication that grandparents engage in communicating with their grandchildren are varied. These entail verbal communication (50%), non-verbal communication, written communication (4.2%), visual communication as well as listening. Ghanaian society like elsewhere across the globe has undergone a lot of change such that grandparents and grandchildren live in separate dwellings hence the use of the above indicated forms of communication (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Forms of intergenerational communication.

Verbal communication entails face-to-face or telephone or voice communication. Written communication does take the form of written notes or information on paper or any other means including emails and messages on social media platforms. Visual communication may take the form of the display of visuals, particularly on social media platforms – Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and WhatsApp. These may come with written messages. Listening is an art in communication that is key. Listening carefully to what is being said on any front enables the speaker to be assured of being heard in the process of communication. Listening attentively to a speaker who is a grandparent or grandchild sustains the interest in the process of communication. Listening therefore enables both older generations and younger generations to hear out each other in the context of communication. It has observed that:

I often use oral communication with my grandchildren (Grandparent 25, Female, 60 years).

I use verbal and visual communication types of communication with my grandchildren (Grandparent 26, Male, 70 years).

… my communication with my grandchildren is usually verbal and friendly (Grandparent 27, Male, 62 years).

Collectively, these connote oral or verbal as well as visual modes of communication. In essence, these denote face-to-face and visual communication tools. The face-to-face mode of communication is reminiscent of the usage and facilitation of verbal communication. The visual component relates mostly to communication undertaken through social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter and Instagram that are interspersed with videos/visuals.

The languages grandparents speak with their younger generations are multiplex in nature, and they include Bono, Dagaati, Dagbani, Dangbe, English language (11.8%), Ewe, Fante, Ga, Guan, Hausa, Mour (2.2%) and Twi (Table 2). The Twi here indicated comprises both Akuapim Twi and Asante Twi. However, in situations where grandchildren speak different languages, the English language becomes the predominant means of communication due to intermarriages or mixed marriages, or locality of stay. Mixed marriages often occur when males or females marry foreigners or indigenes of different ethnic backgrounds than their own ethnic backgrounds, who speak different languages. This may create a linguistic gap in communication with respect to pronounciation and meaning of words and/or statement. The question then is: Do grandchildren speak the local languages of their parents? The ability of grandchildren to do this depends on efforts on the parts of their parents or guardians, particularly their lingual preferences in terms of speaking the local language or any local Ghanaian language. The educational setting and systems in the country and the adopted mode of instruction have a role to play in this context. These notwithstanding, the usage of the local language intergenerationally and the essence of it cannot be underestimated and needs to be emphasised. This is because language is the key ingredient in the process of social interaction and, for that matter socialisation. This brings to the fore the preferred languages older generations have in terms of speaking with their younger generations, discussed below. This is significant because of the need to preserve culture.

Languages	Frequency/Percentage
Bono	31 (6.9)
Dangbe	66 (14.7)
Dagbani	51 (11.4)
English language	53 (11.8)
Ewe	42 (9.3)
Fante	49 (10.9)
Ga	68 (15.1)
Guan	50 (11.1)
Hausa	35 (7.8)
Mour	10 (2.2)
Twi	60 (13.4)

Table 2.

Languages grandparents speak with their grandchildren.

In communicating with their grandchildren, grandparents use a variety of techniques to evoke verbal expressions from grandchildren, namely: posing open-ended questions to the latter and creating room for verbal expressions and articulations. For example:

My grandchildren can speak the local language (Grandparent 4, Male, 69 years).

By asking then open-ended questions in order to express their views through in-person visits (Grandparent 27, Male, 50 years).

When my grandchildren go to school, they come back and speak English language. When they are at home, they speak Twi (Grandparent 3, Female, 74 years).

Preferred communication languages with grandchildren by grandparents are a medley of single languages, for example, Bono, Dagaati, Dangbe, Dagbani, English language (9.7%), Ewe, Fante, Ga, Guan, Hausa, Mour, Twi, a combination of two languages (e.g. Ga and Dangbe, Ga and Ewe and Ga and Twi, Twi and Dangbe, English language and Ewe, English language and Fante, English language and Ga, English language and Mour (2.5%), English language and Twi) and last but not the least, a mixture of three languages (e.g. English language, Bono and Twi) (Table 3).

Preferred languages	Frequency/Percentage
Bono	16 (4.4)
Dagaati	17(4.7)
Dangbe	18 (5)
Dagbani	16 (4.4)
English language	35 (9.7)
Ewe	21 (5.8)
Fante	17 (4.7)
Ga	25 (6.9)
Guan	17 (4.7)
Hausa	18 (5)
Twi	28 (7.8)
Ga & Dangbe	18 (5)
Ga & Ewe	27 (7.5)
Ga & Twi	20 (5.6)
Twi & Dangbe	18 (5)
English language & Ewe	20 (5.6)
English language & Fante	20 (5.6)
English language & Ga	20 (5.6)
English language & Mour	9 (2.5)
English language & Twi	20 (5.6)
English language, Bono & Twi	11 (3.1)

Table 3.

Grandparents’ preferred languages spoken with their grandchildren.

The quantitative information in Table 3 shows grandparents’ subscription to the utilisation of a medley of languages, either solely local languages or a mixture of local languages and the English language. First, this constitution may be a coping strategy employed to elicit the ability to freely communicate and engage grandchildren with consolidated understanding for both generations. Second, this may safeguard against language deficiencies in both generations with assurance for understanding and interconnectivity on both fronts. This has implications for multilingualism. This is tantamount to multilingualism, which in turn enables communication between Ghana’s linguistically and culturally diverse population. Multilingualism promotes tolerance, ensures increased intergenerational communications, greater communication, greater effectiveness in socialisation and social interaction, better outcomes and more involvement. Multilingualism ensures equitable treatment of all languages in Ghana.

Majority of them (47.5%) revealed that they were extremely satisfied with the way they communicate with their grandchildren, whereas (10.3%) were not satisfied (Figure 2). This connotes the need for improvement in intergenerational communication.

Figure 2.

Grandparents’ satisfaction with how they communicate with their grandchildren.

This extent of satisfaction also needs to be hinged on the clarity and straightforward nature of the communication expensed. Resultantly, approximately 67% of grandparents agreed with the fact that clear and straightforward communication is important for maintaining a productive relationship between grandparents and grandchildren (see Figure 3). This is an indication of problems with access to grandchildren and communicating with them.

Figure 3.

Opinions on clear and straightforward communication.

The notion of grandparents’ satisfaction with their communication with grandchildren is an indication of involvement, sociability, benefits. Similarly, the challenges, the grandparents encountered in the course of communication with grandchildren serve as inconvenience, nodes of isolation as well as a threat to intergenerational communication. These results are consistent with the theoretical argument of Ruggiero [38] that there are 6 distinct user-oriented areas of interactivity namely benefits, involvement, sociability, threat, isolation and inconvenience.

4.2.4 Challenges grandparents encounter in communicating with their grandchildren

The experience of inconvenience, isolation and threat to a large extent, depict the notion of difficulties older people encounter. Thus, the participants were faced with slight difficulties (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Difficulties encountered in communicating with grandchildren.

The difficulties with intergenerational communication have to do with the exposure of grandchildren to the English language, which poses a challenge to non-English language-speaking older adults, who are able to communicate in the local languages but are at the same time unable to communicate in the English language. They explained in the interview data as follows:

I discovered that my grandchildren mostly understand English better than the Ga-Dangbe because I do not understand English, it has become very difficult for me to communicate with my grandchildren (Grandparents 21, Female, 51 years).

I find it difficult talking to my grandchildren because they do not understand my language. So, I use signs and symbols in communicating with them (Grandparent 28, Female, 60 years).

I have a slight hearing problem sometimes. It becomes difficult for me to listen to or hear my grandchildren (Grandparent 11, Female, 54 years).

It is difficult to understand my grandchildren sometimes when they speak because they find it difficult to speak the local language (Grandparent 21, Female, 60 years).

The difficulties encountered by grandparents in the context of communication with their grandchildren entail the following: grandchildren do not understand their grandparents’ spoken languages, grandparents’ hearing challenges. In the case of the non-understanding of the non-spoken languages, is older adults’ resort to the utilisation of sign language as well as symbols. Sign language mentioned here relates to body language. This makes body language a significant communication conduit in the context of this chapter.

There are language barrier(s) to communication between grandparents and grandchildren. As a result, some older adults (23.6%) agreed to this fact (Figure 5). They are therefore touting the situation and/or problem in Ghana, bemoaning situations in which communicators do not understand neither do they speak any local languages in exception of the English language.

Figure 5.

Perceptions of language barrier(s).

The qualitative data shows the essence of communication between grandparents and their grandchildren and the languages used. For instance:

Grandparents’ communication with their grandchildren facilitates the passage of cultural and other values to grandchildren. However, language barrier is the issue because my grandchildren do not understand the full impact of what is being said to them (Grandparent 23, Female, 70 years).

My grandchildren mostly speak the English language and Twi (Grandparent 19, Male, 80 years).

Some significant way of some of the participants coping with the challenge of language barrier(s) is to show signs by virtue of pointing at the objects being referred to at any given material moment, deliberately speaking the local language even if the child does not understand. It was therefore explained that:

When I speak the local language – Twi, my grandchildren do not understand. The issue is my daughter speaks English language with my grandchildren. And so, I have to point at things to enable my grandchildren to understand what I am saying to them (Grandparent 29, Female, 70 years).

I communicate with my grandchildren through verbal communication and through sign language (body language), (Grandparent 30, Male, 52 years).

My mother speaks English language but she only speaks Twi with my son and now he speaks and understands both English language and Twi (Grandparent 9, Female, 51 years).

I have chosen to speak the local language with my children and grandchildren. I am an elite but I have chosen to do this. Those who do otherwise, they have a big challenge (Grandparent 8, Male, 70 years).

Older Ghanaian adults are faced with a barricade of problems in their bid to communicate with their grandchildren. Physical barrier (38.9%), that is distance between their grandparents and grandchildren in terms of dwelling places. Physical barriers have created a generational gap between older adults and their grandchildren in terms of communication. Back in the days, older adults lived in the same household with their younger generations, that is extended family type of dwelling. This is however not the case for many families due to social change, modernisation, urbanisation, etc. Other problems entail not been fluent in the spoken language and inability to understand what is said during a conversation (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Problems grandparents encounter in communicating with their grandchildren.

In confirmation, the interview data simplifies the above indicated challenges bringing to the fore issues of inability of grandparents and grandchildren to understand each other, particularly the former. The interview data below articulate this fact:

Generational gap has created misunderstanding on differences in opinion making communication difficult (Grandparent 13, Male, 53 years).

I find it difficult talking to my grandchildren because they do not understand my language (Grandparent 14, Female, 60 years).

My grandchildren find it difficult to understand me (Grandparent 17, Female, 74 years).

Nowadays, children like speaking more of English language than the local language (Grandparent 15, Male, 56 years).

4.3 Improving how grandparents communicate with their grandchildren

The previous section outlined the challenges that older adults are faced with such as physical barriers, hearing problems, have a problems connecting and understanding what is said including fluency in spoken language. This section proffers ways to improve intergenerational communication. As is indicated on Table 4. These include improve listening skills, learn to manage emotions, improve non-verbal communication, being open-minded, being empathetic, be receptive to feedback (8.1) and communicate clearly and regularly (36.4%).

Languages	Frequency/Percentage
Improve listening skills	57 (15.8)
Learn to manage emotions	32 (8.9)
Improve non-verbal communication	31 (8.6)
Being open-minded	40 (11.1)
Being empathetic	40 (11.1)
Being receptive to feedback	29 (8.1)
Communicate clearly and regularly	131 (36.4)

Table 4.

Measures used by grandparents to improve intergenerational communication.

From the interview data, the older adults articulated the fact that several factors come into play when it comes to improving communication between grandparents and their grandchildren such as: the influence of mixed marriages, learning both the local and English languages, make deliberate effort to speak the local language(s), socialisation, educational reform in Ghana. They explained:

Mixed marriages influence the languages spoken with grandchildren. My son married a Fante woman. There is the need to learn both local languages and English language. I speak Guan with local people and English language with the internationals (Grandparent 13, Male, 53 years).

Parents and grandparents should speak their local languages with their children and grandchildren (Grandparent 14, Female, 60 years).

Communication between grandparents and grandchildren can be effective when the grandparents share their experiences (Grandparent 6, Male, 62 years).

I am comfortable speaking the local language with my grandchildren than the English language (Grandparent 8, Male, 70 years).

The contribution of socialisation in a healthy manner facilitates excellent communication skills in general and those situated within intergenerational communication in particular. This may be facilitated by understanding and consistent contacts between grandparents and grandchildren including speaking of local languages. The interview data shows that:

A healthy socialisation also improves good skills of communication (Grandparent 1, Female, 51 years).

Grandparents must try to understand their grandchildren (Female grandparent, 60 years).

Visiting of grandparents should be consistent (Grandparent 15, Male, 56 years).

Parents and grandparents should ensure that they speak local languages and not always the foreign language with their grandchildren (Grandparent 8, Male, 70 years).

Parents and grandparents should ensure that they teach their children and grandchildren how to speak their own spoken (local) languages (Grandparent 10, Female, 56 years).

In all these, the role of the educational institutions in facilitating a conducive intergenerational communication was not left out. Reference was made to educational policy and its stipulations on instruction for instance from kindergarten 1 pupils using the local language, both of which are responsible for issues related to educational reforms and implementation respectively. Hence, the following intimations were made:

Educational reforms require that from kindergarten 1, children should be instructed in their local languages (Grandparents 14, Female, 60 years).

I encourage teachers of the various educational institutions to promote the speaking of the local languages to enhance more effectiveness of communication (Grandparent 6, Male, 60 years).

The preceding views indicate that older adults or grandparents had expectations with regard to spending more time with grandchildren, whereas it is anticipated of the grandchildren and their parents to speak the local language so that they can become a core part of the grandchildren. The older adults also expected to be close to their grandchildren more often but which seems quite impossible due to physical barriers. Also, by expectations, the older generation had a list of preferred language for utilisation in communication with the younger generation. Theoretically, these constitute in the words of Burgoon and Hale [40] positive expectancy that make the older generation communicators perceive their communication with the younger generation as positive, culminating in favourable outcomes in intergenerational communication.

It is worth noting that assessment of the vitality of communication skills in healthy intergenerational communication is a core ingredient that must be explored. Statistically, this notion was strongly agreed to by approximately 52% of the participants, whereas about 7% were not too sure about that (Figure 7). This suggests that one does not really need skills to indulge in intergenerational communication. Yet, such skills could be developed in the course of intergenerational communication.

Figure 7.

Assessment need for communication skills’ vitality.

The qualitative data revealed the need for careful listening as well as making efforts to learn and speak the local languages both at school and at home. These seem to be measures that may contribute to the vitality of communication skills in the context of intergenerational communication. The views below depict this:

Listening carefully to my grandchildren makes them happy since I can understand them better (Grandparent 25, Female, 60 years).

The children should be encouraged to learn and speak the local language in school and at home (Grandparent 22, Male, 62 years).

Local languages should be used more often in the home, for children to grow with them and communicate in them as well (Grandparent 6, Male, 62 years).

Establishing the significance of the assessment of the vitality of communication skills in healthy intergenerational communication is a core ingredient that must be explored. As mentioned early on, the results also intimated the general essence of communication in the building of relationships, sharing of ideas, assigning responsibilities even within the frame of intergenerational communication. Put differently, these are facilitated by the phenomenon of intergenerational communication. According to about 55% of the grandparents, this is imperative in recent times (see Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Significance of intergenerational communication.

5. Discussion

The study sought to investigate how intergenerational communication shapes intergenerational interactions and explore paradigm shift in the dynamics of intergenerational communication. The study participants engage a myriad of communication modes in communicating with their grandchildren such as story-telling, usage of telecommunication modalities (including telephone calls and text messaging). In confirmation, Dovie et al. [45] observed that text messaging is used as a medium for reducing, for example, physical barriers to intergenerational communication. The results also show that the significance of visitation by both grandparents and their grandchildren, posing of open-ended questions to grandchildren, playing games with grandchildren, knowledge of the interests of grandchildren, social media (e.g. Facebook, Whatsapp, Twitter, Instagram, etc.). The languages which served as mediums for intergenerational communication are as follows: Bono, Dagbani, Dangbe, English language, Ewe, Fante, Ga, Guan, Hausa, Mour and Twi (comprises Akuapim Twi and Asante Twi). Primary socialisation including social interaction among older and younger generations was thus facilitated by these outlined languages.

A language is constituted by a set of words and sounds used in a structured manner and is communicated between people through speaking, writing and gestures. Language is a very significant human method of communication. The United Nations (UN), [46] has six (6) official languages, namely Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. Inasmuch as communication is important, particularly between older and younger generations, it is achieved to a large extent via language and the associated speaking of it.

Playing games help in self-expressions in a variety of life’s situations, for example, to depict war information, intergenerational communication, among others. These games include ludo, oware, domino, spar/card games. In a study conducted on harnessing intergenerational game nexus for older adults’ well-being in Ghana, Dovie et al. [47] found that intergenerational social interaction contributed to the well-being of older people.

The mention of grandparents’ using telephone calls, text messaging, social media platforms in the findings is an indication of digital literacy on the part of the grandparents in this study to a large extent as a means of communication with grandchildren. This corroborates the lay out by Pahl [48] that the ‘stuff’ of digital literacies is materialised in smartphones, screens, tablets, and other complex digital literacy artefacts that spill into the ‘stuff’ of everyday life” (p. 173). This further provides a lens through which sense is made of the range of things that people do with digital technology ([49], p. 3).

Grandparents’ communication with their grandchildren is facilitated by diverse factors, namely: visitation that induces face-to-face communication with the grandchildren. This visitation may take the form of either grandparents visiting grandchildren and their parents or the grandchildren and their parents visiting the older adults. Either way, visitation gladdens the hearts of the grandparents. Another scenario pertains to both grandparents and grandchildren and their parents living in the same households. In situations where the grandparents only visit their children and grandchildren and return to their dwellings, the act of communication continues via telephone and/or telecommunication. When grandparents communicate with their grandchildren, it enables them to bond with grandchildren in terms of connectivity. During older adults’ communication with grandchildren, they share their lived life experiences with them. This is reflective of the sharing of knowledge. This is key because older people or grandparents are said to be the repository of wisdom or knowledge (including the telling of stories by older adults to the younger generations). Therefore, intergenerational communication fosters a sense of belongingness, connection, bonding and attachment. In addition to these it has been observed that (social) interaction with children promotes well-being among the elderly [47, 50]. Social interaction can here be defined as meaningful dialogue [51] among individuals. Similarly, Seppala [52] wrote, “people who feel more connected to others have lower levels of anxiety and depression.

The problems encountered during intergenerational communication encompass grandchildren do not understand their grandparents’ spoken languages, grandparents’ hearing challenges, not been fluent in the spoken language and inability to understand what is said during a conversation, and physical barriers. McMillan and Hwang [53] identified three dimensions of communication constraints and direction of communication, user control and time.

The findings showing that some grandparents have problems when communicating with their grandchildren is a critical indication of neglect in attention as far as the local language and it is the associated spoken nature is concerned. This in turn has serious implications for development and governance processes in Ghana. Since the voices of the underserved and marginalised individuals who are non-English speakers may end up being consigned to the background and therefore will not be fully represented in issues of governance nature [37].

In improving intergenerational communication between older adults and younger people. First, there is the need for the older adults in particular to tend to listen attentively to their grandchildren. The reverse also holds. Second, despite the fact that the above-stated challenges could be problematic, older adults need to try to contain their emotions, be open-minded, be emphatic, and be receptive to feedback. Finally, there is a need for clear communication and on a regular basis.

Existing literature shows that communication is absolutely necessary in terms of relationships’ building, sharing ideas, delegating responsibilities, managing a team and many more [54]. By and larger, intergenerational communication between older people and their grandchildren and the capability and barriers to the same thereof may seem to be bearers of older people’s inclusion and exclusion simultaneously in the Ghanaian society [cf. [55]]. Due to the ability to communicate with grandchildren, grandparents have the propensity to feel included socially in the society. In the same vein, their inability to do the same is tantamount to social exclusion, especially in the family context, with implications for their feelings and sense of belongingness. The participation of older generations in such communications with the younger generation induces social inclusion on the part of older adults and vice versa. This finding is in line with the results of [55] in a study that ascertained the social inclusion of older adults in participation in formal care practices in Ghana. Also connected to the phenomenon of social inclusion is that of socialisation, since intergenerational communication facilitates socialisation.

The chapter shows that primary socialisation is the type of socialisation, inherent in which the older generations pass and continue to transmit values, norms and behaviours of the Ghanaian culture to younger persons, as it is found in the family. The secondary form of socialisation occurs in the educational setting, namely in the school. This form of socialisation also occurs in the mass media, churches/mosques, etc. Obviously, cultural values, norms and behaviours are transmitted through this avenue. This is a depiction of primary socialisation with the family via grandparents being the agents of socialisation. This is hampered to some extent by language barriers. Language barrier refers to impediments to speaking and understanding what is spoken, such as inability to speak a language because of the lack of exposure to the given language. For example, learning to speak the English language to the detriment of learning, understanding and speaking the local languages. Granted that the English language is Ghana’s official language, yet, this is not a counter to learning and speaking the local languages.

Socialisation is the act of incorporating an individual who is uninformed in a given culture and oriented in the cultural aspects of a the given culture. Socialisation is a life-long process that starts in the family and from the home and continues in the church, mosques, school among others. There are several types of socialisation – primary socialisation, secondary socialisation, anticipatory socialisation, adult socialisation, resocialisation, gender socialisation, racial socialisation and reverse socialisation. The agents of socialisation entail the family, church/religion, peer group(s), school, mass media [56, 57] workplace and government [56].

6. Conclusion

The chapter investigated how intergenerational communication shapes intergenerational interactions and explored paradigm shifts in the dynamics of intergenerational communication. Communication between older and younger generations facilitates socialisation by both the family and educational institution, development of communication skills, public speaking and strengthening of intergenerational relationships. Similarly, healthy socialisation also improves good skills of communication. The mediums of communication entailed both local languages (e.g., Twi, Ga, Ewe, etc.) and English language. The attainment of these were not without the encounter of some challenges. These encompass physical barriers, hearing problems, inability to understand what is said, and not being fluent in spoken language. For better intergenerational communication, the following have been proffered: improve listening skills, learn to manage emotions, improve non-verbal communication, be open-minded, be empathetic, be receptive to feedback and clear and regular communication.

The paradigm shifts here found are constituted first by intermarriages and the associated issues. Second, parental communication style is largely dependents on the English language. Third, the use of signs and symbols in situations of language barriers. Fourth, they resort to social media as a medium of intergenerational communication. Finally, the physical barrier denoted by grandparents’ desire to be close to their grandchildren for longer pertains. In summary, intergenerational communication is necessary in the sharing of ideas, building relationships and the assignment of responsibilities among grandparents and grandchildren. It is concluded that communication skills are vital to a healthy intergenerational communication including intergenerational relationship-building dynamics.

6.1 Strengths and weaknesses of the study

This chapter shows how intergenerational communication shapes intergenerational interactions and explore paradigm shift in the dynamics of intergenerational communication. It also contributes to existing knowledge on intergenerational communication, fills the gap and encourages more studies on intergenerational communication. However, there are certain limitations of the current study. First, because of its cross-sectional nature, the current study could not clearly identify causal relationships between the patterns of intergenerational communication for older men and women. Hence, in the future, longitudinal research that assesses the relative significance of causal directions could inform policymakers on intergenerational dynamics. Second, the current study also has paid no attention to the grandchildren’s views on the issue. Considering grandchildren’s views in research will certainly provide a two-sided understanding of intergenerational communication.

Acknowledgments

We thank the older adults who granted the permission to conduct this research, who agreed to allow their personal spaces to be used for the study, and for the time spent answering the questionnaire and interview questions.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.