Emotional Foundations and Educational Development

Abstract

The following chapter seeks to provide an understanding and comprehensive definition of the concept of emotional intelligence (hereinafter, EI) and of the various perspectives from which it has been approached over the years. EI is a key personal factor in everybody’s lives. Its importance can already be seen at an early age, as it favors an understanding of the world around and helps to take the right decisions when faced with everyday conflictive situations. Ultimately, it has an impact on individuals’ mental and social well-being throughout their lifetime. All of this highlights the importance of supporting the continuous development of EI from childhood. Yet mastering EI is not merely confined to an early age. Prevention and protection when faced with health problems underline the need to develop emotional skills throughout the whole life cycle.

1. Introduction

Emotion is a concept that has aroused considerable curiosity since ancient times. It has long been the subject of concern and analysis and—over the last few decades—has reached beyond the bounds of psychology to become a part of our everyday lives. Emotions play a key role in our life and are involved in all stages of our development, helping us to take decisions, forge emotional and social links, and solve problems. The ability to recognize, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively is crucial for individuals with emotional intelligence, who will be better equipped to make decisions, solve problems, and communicate more effectively compared to those without such said intelligence.

The road that has led to the definition of emotional intelligence (EI) as we know it today has by no means been easy. Throughout history, numerous definitions of the concept have been put forward, and all of them have been influenced by the theoretical model on which they are grounded.

The origin of the term EI dates back to the theory of the law of affect, proposed by Edward Thorndike during his research on social intelligence. Thorndike is considered one of the precursors of EI [1, 2, 3, 4]. Years later, Sternberg [5] presented a construct closely related to Thorndike’s social intelligence—“practical intelligence”—taken from triarchic theory. This construct assumes three types of intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical. The author maintained that success could be achieved through a balance between the three intelligences [5, 6]. Both—Thorndike’s social intelligence and Sternberg’s practical intelligence—are related to the EI that had been studied up until then from a personality-centered approach.

Drawing on these theories, Salovey and Mayer [7] took Gardner’s contributions on intrapersonal intelligence and interpersonal intelligence to develop the concept of EI. Based on this, EI is defined as the ability to handle feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use this knowledge to shape one’s own thoughts and actions [7].

Although the concept of EI appeared in 1990, only in 1995 with the publication of Daniel Goleman’s bestseller “Emotional Intelligence” did the concept fully emerge and become widely known.

Below is a free adaptation of the evolution of the concept of EI across five stages based on Mayer’s research (Table 1) [11].

	Stage	Characteristics
First stage	1900–1970	Discriminating between the concepts of emotion and intelligence.; Appearance of the psychometric approach to human intelligence
Second stage	1970–1990	Appearance of the precursors of EI—Howard Gardner and Robert Stenberg.; Influence of the cognitive paradigm and of information processing.
Third stage	1990–1993	Mayer and Salovey—together with other collaborators—publish several articles that deal with emotional intelligence. They posit a model based on its components that subsequently served as a guide for them to set out the final version of their theory.
Fourth stage	1996–1997	Dissemination and expansion of the concept in academic and popular circles thanks to Daniel Goleman’s [8] book “Emotional Intelligence”; Appearance of the first version of the Emotional Quotient Inventory of the of Bar-On model [9].
Fifth stage	1998–2020	The basic three-branch model of Salovey and Mayer [7] gives way to a four-branch model [10]: perception and emotional evaluation, emotional facilitation, emotional understanding, and reflexive regulation of emotions.; New measurement instruments were applied.

Table 1.

Evolution of the concept of EI across five stages.

2. Models of EI

As is the case with many of the constructs used in psychology, there is some discrepancy when defining the notion of EI. The difficulties involved in defining what it is, how it can be conceived, and how we can work with it have revolved around what are the fundamental components of the concept itself and which factors might account for inter-individual differences. The different theoretical currents reflect the plurality of skills that are part of the construct. This variability has been analyzed and reinforced by Fragoso [12] and Pérez et al. [13] who classified them into two large groups: theoretical models of emotional intelligence as an ability and mixed or trait models [14, 15, 16].

The first model conceives EI as the ability that takes into account the processing of emotional information and the abilities related to said processing [17, 18]. Mixed models focus on a set of personality traits, socio-emotional dispositions, and aspects linked to motivation and cognitive skills [19, 20, 21]. While many authors focus on developing theoretical models, others have sought to operationalize a more exact definition of EI [22, 23]. Some authors such as Mayer et al., —perhaps adopting a more restrictive approach—consider that the construct should be specifically defined from a scientific point of view so as to distance itself from nonscientific disclosures.

In contrast, we find Goleman [8] and Bar-On [19] whose concept of EI is broader and includes everything outside academic intelligence, such as impulse control, self-motivation, or social relationships. When defining EI, these discrepancies emerged throughout the twentieth century [24], with some researchers describing EI models as complementary [25]. However, the empirical bases on which they are grounded, their integrative elements, and the measurement instruments used for each model differ substantially, which has led to the appearance of different conceptions of EI. Today, we can speak of some substantial differences between skill models and mixed models [26, 27]. Following Bar-On [9] and Palmero and Martínez-Sánchez [28], here is a scheme of our own elaboration of the main EI models (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Emotional intelligence models. Note. Source extracted from Bar-On [9], Palmero and Martínez-Sánchez [28].

3. Psychosocial aspects of EI

3.1 Perception, appraisal, and emotional expression

Based on the first branch identified in the Mayer and Salovey [10] skills model, perception and emotional expression are evident from the moment individuals are born [29]. People tend to project and perceive their emotions through the facial channel better than through any other—including verbal communication. One psychosocial aspect to be considered in emotional perception is culture. When recognizing facial expressions, the face of the person being appraised is of great importance. The link between the person who is expressing themselves and the person who is receiving a facial expression has significant consequences vis-à-vis how accurately the two will perceive said link, due to implicit cultural factors. Certain classical studies [30] discovered that emotional facial communication tends to be more precise among those who share similar cultural environments. Therefore—and despite the universality of emotional communication—there seem to be subtle differences between subjects who belong to the same cultural community, such that we understand better those who express themselves using an emotional “sub-modality” that is similar to our own.

As regards emotional expression, there is a difference depending on evolutionary stages; at school age, the peer group is fundamental for socialization. As a result, emotional expression is used as a mechanism for becoming included in group processes. As we learn to control the emotional “sub-modality” of our cultural group, socialization improves. Social development cannot therefore be detached from cognitive-emotional development, since some of the most complex cognitive skills can be included in the social domain.

From a socioeconomic standpoint, significant differences have been found depending on income [31]. Those who belong to higher economic levels score higher in facial expression tasks than those from lower socioeconomic levels. This means there is facilitation in emotional decoding through facial expression of emotions when subjects belong to higher-income social groups.

As regards personality—and following studies into the Big Five Personality Traits [32]—factors such as mental openness and, to a lesser degree, extraversion and awareness enable facial expressions to be interpreted accurately. This may be because individuals who are high in openness tend to be more receptive to new ideas and experiences, which may make them more attuned to subtle social cues—including facial expressions. Additionally, individuals who are high in extraversion may be more socially confident and skilled at interpreting social cues, including facial expressions. Conscientious individuals, on the other hand, tend to be more detail-oriented and attentive to their surroundings, which may help them to pick up on subtle facial expressions.

In contrast, neuroticism, which is characterized by negative emotions such as anxiety and fear, has been found to predict lower accuracy in recognizing facial expressions. This may be because individuals who are high in neuroticism may be more focused on their own internal experiences and less attuned to external social cues.

Overall, personality traits can play a role in how accurately individuals perceive and interpret facial expressions, with openness, extraversion, and awareness predicting greater accuracy and neuroticism predicting lower accuracy. In sum, it would appear that individuals who are most willing to pay attention to social and situational cues are those most able to recognize the facial expressions of others.

3.2 Facilitation or emotional assimilation

One of the most interesting aspects of EI involves understanding how it ties in with social competence. Determining what emotional processes help with decision-making in situations of social interaction will enable us to gain an insight into the mechanisms underlying why certain individuals enjoy social success.

A relation has been found to exist between high scores in EI—through measuring skills—and satisfactory social functioning, although only in men. This evidence does not hold true for women. Some authors have suggested that emotions play a different role in the social interactions of men and women to the point that they form emotionally different worlds [33]. Following on from these authors, emotions facilitate social interactions differently in men and women. Nevertheless, it is not yet clear what the mediating element is that leads to this distinction in terms of gender. In addition to possessing a good level of EI, it has been suggested [34] that emotional self-efficacy may act as a mediator for successful social interaction. This concept might account for why there are those with high EI who, nevertheless, do not see themselves as being emotionally intelligent and who do not engage well socially. Although we do not know exactly the processes through which EI impacts interpersonal relations, the gender variable should be taken into account and addressed separately.

3.3 Emotional understanding

This involves the ability to break down emotional signals and to substantiate and categorize these emotions. It implies a retrospective capacity for causes and an anticipatory capacity for the consequences of said emotion [35]. Emotional understanding thus has a socializing function from the first years of life. The family offers the first context of socialization for children, and it is here where the help we provide to make sense of and to understand what children feel then helps them to grasp and master their own emotions. We need to foster emotional communication in which we send out messages of understanding, where we help children to comprehend how they feel, where we validate their emotions, and where we encourage them to choose how they wish to react [36]. Communication between children and their principal caregivers plays a key role in the development of social functions.

Within the communication process, the emotional expressions of the sender and the understanding and interpretative capacity of the receiver have an enormous influence on the type of interpersonal relationship that occurs in a group [37]. Socialization of emotions thus takes place in interactions between children and their parents and, subsequently, with peers when experiencing emotions [38].

3.4 Emotional regulation

In the fourth branch of the EI skills model, the family also plays a key role. Thus far, we have mentioned the latter’s influence through conversations on emotional experiences and the expressivity of emotions in the family. Emotional regulation is also acquired and refined in the family context. How parents’ emotions are handled may—directly or indirectly—impact how their children’s emotional skills develop. Conversations between parents and children are linked to a better use of emotional language in preschool children [38] and to a better overall understanding of the causes and consequences of emotion [39]. Children who are more skilled in the use of emotional language and at understanding emotional experiences may be better at regulating their emotional states and at coping with stressing situations [40]. Indirectly, family conversations teach children ways of understanding and how to deal with emotional experiences.

In sum, how parents act with their children is key to correctly developing emotional regulation through conversations on emotions and family emotional expressivity. Patterns of anxiety have been described in children that have been linked to aversive interactions on the part of their parents, as well as control and negative behavior by mothers when interacting with their children [41].

4. Neuroscience

The central task of neuroscience is to explain how our individual neurons in the brain act to produce specific behavior and how these cells, in turn, are influenced by the environment, including the behavior of other individuals [42]. Thanks to neuroscience, we know now which brain regions are activated during specific emotional states, which neurotransmitters are more active when we feel good, and how we manage our emotions based on brain maturation [43]. Scientific literature has shown us how emotions can promote certain behaviors, learning processes, emotional states, or cognitive processes as neural networks and synaptic connections intensify [42]. Therefore, the emotional mind and the cognitive mind are very closely linked, and both operate in different circuits but neurally interconnected with each other.

Neuroscience is working tirelessly to ascertain what are the structures and cognitive processes involved in the different emotional states [44]. Describing how our neural system works is key to understanding and disseminating strategies that improve the mental health linked to the feeling of personal well-being through intervention based on empirical evidence. Unfortunately, much of the research carried out has focused on the neurobiological study of negative emotions. Only now are we beginning to set out on the road toward exploring the effects and functioning of our nervous system in terms of emotions such as happiness, satisfaction, or joy [45]. Although scientific literature has failed to provide any universally accepted definition of the concept of well-being, most studies point to three components: positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction [46].

Affects—both positive and negative—are independent dimensions concerned with emotions and moods triggered by the external stimulus that the subject is faced with [47] Life satisfaction refers to a value judgment the person makes of their life in accordance with their own criteria concerning what is an ideal life. As a result, there is no external standardized concept of what is the “ideal life”. Rather, it is a construct that is developed internally [48].

The definition of subjective well-being would involve experiencing a high positive affect, a low negative affect, and a high life satisfaction [49]. The neuroscience of emotion and the understanding of neurophysiological correlates linked to positive emotions to generate well-being presents a new framework for the neuroscientific study of emotion across species. This is the reason underlying the shift in focus of the studies being carried out recently into neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, and hormone function. Neurochemical studies have focused on the role played by positive emotional experiences. Specifically, dopamine has become the neurotransmitter par excellence linked to the feeling of well-being associated to reward [50]. The mesolimbic dopamine system is key in the dynamic of reward and points to active participation of the ventral tegmental area to the accumbens nucleus, which implements responses to positive stimuli and which involves the motivational aspect [51]. This activity also extends to regions of the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the prefrontal medial cortex [52].

Personal mood and traits are linked to cognitive processes through a two-way relationship. The general cognitive process is understood to be the executive functioning that allows us to shape our behavior and regulate our actions, such as inhibitory control, working memory, or mental flexibility. When speaking of a two-way influence, we are referring to the influence that this cognitive control exerts on our own emotions or on those of others [53]. Nevertheless, little is known of the inverse process, in other words, how mood or positive stimuli impact the cognitive processes that affect the functioning of higher areas such as attention, motivation, or memory.

4.1 Inhibitory control

Inhibitory control is the ability to suppress an automatic response generated in the presence of a stimulus [54]. This function is performed in areas of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and lateral cortex, in the right prefrontal lower cortex and in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex [55]. Numerous studies have highlighted that inhibitory control helps to create more satisfactory social relations, a greater feeling of well-being, and positive effects. This promotes healthier lifestyles [56] and is compatible with having greater cognitive flexibility.

4.2 Working memory

Working memory is a critical element that enables us to retain information in the memory for its immediate processing in order to respond to complex learning tasks such as reasoning linked to decision-making and the use thereof to fulfill our objectives [57]. This function allows us to move toward our goals and improve our emotional regulation [58]. Some studies report that people who exhibit better levels of working memory show greater willingness to respond to stimuli with positive valence. As a result, they tend to report higher levels of well-being and greater life satisfaction. Neuroanatomically speaking, these functions may be found at the prefrontal cortex; specifically, the right side has been identified as the area responsible for codifying the valence of stimuli [59, 60] and prefrontal lateral cortex.

4.3 Mental flexibility

Mental flexibility allows us to modify our goal-oriented behavior, depending on motivation, interest, or the extent to which said goals may be achieved. Having the right mental flexibility substantially improves our mood as it avoids phenomena such as perseverance, reduces the risk of frustration, and enhances the ability to solve problems, since it enables attentional control to be tempered [61]. This cognitive flexibility allows us to realize that what we are doing is not working or has ceased to work and that we must therefore readjust our behavior, how we think, or our opinions in order to adapt to the environment and to new situations. The prefrontal medial cortex, the cerebrum parietal, and premotor of the cingulum have generally been highlighted as the areas involved in the change in tasks depending on the goal pursued [62].

In sum, neuroscience has developed theories as to how cognitive control influences mood, emotions, and positive stimuli and vice-versa. Gaining an insight into how emotions and positive moods impact cognitive control has enormous potential in the treatment of psychological disorders where there is cognitive deficiency, such as in depression [63].

5. Predictive effectiveness of EI

EI has been defined as a critical construct for psychological well-being that “can promote emotional intellectual growth” [10]. Nevertheless, most studies have focused on evaluating the more conceptual or psychometric aspects. This is due to the desire to demonstrate that EI might emerge as an adaptive indicator in everyday life, irrespective of other classical constructs. EI can have a significant impact on a person’s daily life, and some of the areas where this may be evident are described below.

EI can help individuals to communicate more effectively with others. When we understand our own emotions and those of others, we are more likely to respond appropriately and empathetically. People with high EI have been defined as better communicators because they can better understand the emotions and needs of others and, consequently, adapt their communication style [9].

There are numerous areas where effective communication has been linked to EI: from the realm of interpersonal relationships generated in the work context, improving relationships between employees and supervisors [64], to positive relationships established in the educational context among people and in the teacher–student relationship [33].

In line with maintaining better interpersonal relationships, EI has also proved useful for conflict resolution. Emotionally intelligent individuals can understand the emotions of others and work to find solutions that satisfy all parties. Several studies have shown that having high EI promotes conflict management in work teams, reduces levels of aggression and hostility in confrontational situations [65], and predisposes individuals to active listening of the conflicting parties [66].

EI can be useful in making important decisions. Emotionally intelligent individuals can weigh up different options more carefully and make informed decisions without letting emotions cloud their judgment [67]. This is because during decision-making, they are better able to regulate their emotions, which leads to more objective decisions [68].

In another line of research, EI has been shown to be a factor that significantly improves decision-making. This is because emotionally intelligent individuals are capable of regulating their emotions during this process, allowing them to make more objective decisions [68], especially in ambiguous and highly uncertain situations [61].

Current lines of research [69, 70, 71] have shown that those with high levels of EI obtain more positive results in their life at the psychological well-being level, in terms of academic performance and in professional career success:

• Improved quality of life and subjective well-being.

• Improved quality of social relations.

• Better academic performance and school adaptation.

• Ability to develop their personal strengths.

EI therefore emerges as a construct linked to the current definition of health, perceived as a state of biopsychosocial balance and not solely seen as the lack of illness [72].

Although the mechanisms through which EI exerts its positive effects are not known, there are two perspectives that are compatible with each other concerning the benefits of having a high EI. From the individual perspective, it has been suggested that this may function as a buffer against stress, fostering more adaptive responses when faced with difficulties while also favoring better recovery from stressing events [70]. From the social perspective, it highlights the benefits of both real as well as perceived social support relations in terms of enhancing well-being [73].

6. EI and health

Since the emergence of the concept of EI in 1990 with Peter Salovey and John Mayer, the linkage between physical and mental health as well as the clinical aspects involved has—as was to be expected—opened up a field of inquiry. Nevertheless, research into EI and health has not been confined to the concept of illness, but has also been adapted to the WHO’s concept of health as a state of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely as the absence of illness [74].

The first studies carried out in an attempt to ascertain what impact EI has on health focused on assessing self-perceived EI through the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS). These findings determined that high levels of EI acted as a protective factor against situations of stress, anxiety, eating disorders, and depression. However, since the scale evaluates meta-knowledge of emotional states, the results were called into question. A few years later—with the expansion of the skills model of Salovey and Mayer [10] and thanks to improved measurement instruments—the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) was developed. This test enables EI to be measured through performance and ability tests. On this occasion, the results obtained on the role played by EI in health supported the initial findings and provided greater support for the initial idea of the protective role that an adequate level of EI plays when faced with emotional problems, stress, and eating disorders.

Studies conducted in an effort to evaluate what role EI plays in terms of protection against drug use have shown that a low EI is a risk factor vis-à-vis the consumption of tobacco and alcohol among adolescents. People who are emotionally more intelligent understand better the pressure put on them by their colleagues to take drugs and are better able to reconcile the discrepancies between their own personal motivations and those of the group. In behavioral terms, this enables them to handle peer pressure better and—as a result—can help them to reduce their consumption of alcohol and tobacco [75]. EI acts as protective barrier because it is linked to an enhanced perception of the negative social consequences associated with smoking and it proves more effective when rejecting the offer of tobacco from colleagues. These results are significant in that they show the importance of including the EI variable in substance use prevention programs among adolescents. Abilities that predict, understand, and regulate emotions—coupled with interpersonal skills that can help withstand the pressure from friends around us—have been seen as protective elements against substance use.

This information is consistent with the high prevalence of alexithymia often displayed by patients who suffer from psychosomatic disorders. Alexithymia is an emotional dysregulation trait that is linked to operational thought, high impulsiveness, and numerous bodily sensations; it includes features such as verbal difficulty to express feelings, scant emotional awareness, and specific thought that is focused highly on external details. Certain studies have highlighted that the suppression of thought or a reduced ability for emotional repair is a predictor of increased levels of anxiety during pregnancy. Likewise, low affective expression and low inter- and intrapersonal processing are linked to increased levels of stress during medical tests [76].

Along the same lines, Fernández-Berrocal and Extremera [26] found that EI enables us to reduce the intensity and frequency of negative states of mind caused by everyday adverse occurrences. As a result, EI protects us—or at least makes us less vulnerable—when faced with negative affect and depression. Even though the results relating depression and EI remain limited, Irina Goldenberg and her team [77] did find that the depressive symptomatology evaluated using BDI correlated negatively with EI levels.

People with schizophrenia are characterized by displaying a number of cognitive deficits such as attention, memory, speed of processing, learning, or verbal memory. These deficits are also reflected in the emotional aspect where they exhibit limitations that seriously affect their social involvement. Eack [78] conducted an experiment with a control group in which subject were given training that included improvements in the experimental group’s socio-emotional skills. The results evidenced an increase in the MSCEIT scores in a pre-post comparison, thereby indicating that significant improvements can be achieved in emotional skills. These data reflect that it is possible to enhance the emotional processing of schizophrenia patients.

In sum, it has been found that both perceived EI—evaluated through the TMMS self-report—and ability-based EI evaluated through MSCEIT are related to people’s health and well-being. Aspects such as substance use and suffering from symptoms of depression or schizophrenia can be treated by providing the right training in EI.

7. EI and education

The countless social changes we have undergone in recent years due to phenomena such as increased life expectancy, technological developments, globalization, or the scourge of a global pandemic have altered the way we interact with one another [79, 80]. This contextual dynamism requires us to endow individuals with the necessary resources and personal skills to adequately deal with these changes [81, 82]. Emotional skills enable us to face up to the complexity of an ever-shifting context, allowing us to adapt to our surroundings [83, 84], strengthen our social ties, and promote positive self-assessment, far removed from the quest for approval or social prestige [85, 86].

Education has not remained indifferent to this new scenario, which undoubtedly poses new demands and challenges in the educational work of our teachers [87, 88]. However, there is certain agreement that the traditional education system as we know it has become obsolete and that it needs to be remodeled in order to adapt to new social demands [89, 90, 91]. In particular, it has been highlighted that traditional practice is more focused on teaching than on the students’ learning process, with conventional wisdom deeming that content has been learned merely because it has been taught [92].

7.1 New perspectives

In this sense, the field of neuroscience is making constant progress when seeking to shed light on what are the cognitive, affective, and motivational processes that take place when we learn and how these processes work [45, 50, 93]. On the one hand, work is being done to explore direct routes, aiming to improve brain health through physical fitness, diet, sleep, and stress reduction using relaxation techniques or meditation [94, 95]. On the other hand, possible indirect routes are being explored, based on developmental theories from cognitive neuroscience [96]. These study brain changes throughout the life cycle in order to propose and evaluate new learning activities and how they can be transferred to academic achievement [50].

Existing research has evidenced a set of cognitive skills that are key to specific academic domains such as concept formation, spatial skills, or the manipulation of quantities [97, 98]. These abilities are essential for acquiring literacy and arithmetic skills. However, educational neuroscience is also focusing on the skills of executive function and emotional regulation as important elements to address the more general domains that involve cognitive control and flexibility [99]. In this sense, emotional regulation plays a major part in the social environment of the classroom and in the relationships between students as well as between students and their teachers [100, 101, 102]. Indeed, emotional regulation can be considered a skill that develops in early childhood [103, 104, 105, 106].

In view of the recent developments and advances in cognitive neuroscience, we can affirm that there is growing interest in its application to current educational theories and teaching methods [107]. These data provide valuable information about how attention, memory, decision-making, and, above all, the impact of emotion and language intentionality all work in developing emotionally stable and healthy people [108, 109, 110].

In line with this—and as stated by Busso and Pollack [111]—neuroeducation is positing a series of reforms aimed at promoting a change in educational traditions. Interdisciplinary bridges must be built to articulate the knowledge of education, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience. The goal is to pursue a change in educational trends, which has traditionally focused on developing purely cognitive skills to the detriment of affective skills [50, 96].

7.2 Emotional skills in students and teachers

Emotional skills provide students with the capacity required to make appropriate decisions under stress and to help them regulate and manage emotions effectively in order to prevent psychological problems [112, 113, 114]. Current research focusing on emotional literacy has supported improvements in levels of inter- and intrapersonal skills with enhanced emotional understanding and increased respect for others [115, 116]. From the field of education, emotional intelligence has gained great importance in recent years due to the multiple benefits it can offer, not only for students but also for all those involved in the education system. Moreover, different approaches have pointed to EI skills as a protective factor for subjects against stress, poor mental health, and dysfunctional social relationships [112, 113, 116, 117].

Students’ emotional education largely depends on the role played by their teachers. However, teachers have traditionally been valued for their ability to manage the theoretical content of classes and for their teaching and instructional skills [118, 119]. Yet we now know that other characteristics such as empathy, communication skills, motivation, or reflection are key to creating positive and enriching learning environments [120, 121, 122]. More and more scientific literature agrees in pointing out the importance of developing good emotional intelligence in teachers in order to achieve greater physical and mental stability as well as improve their students’ academic performance [85, 123, 124, 125].

At a personal level, the psychosocial risks involved in teaching put teachers in danger of suffering emotional disorders such as stress or depression due to work overload, lack of organizational support, difficulties in class management, or the pressures of the role [99, 126, 127]. While several studies point to the link between low EI and burnout syndrome [128, 129, 130], other studies highlight the positive relationship between EI and psychological adjustment [26, 131, 132], social functioning [82, 130], the quality of interpersonal relationships [85, 133], well-being [134, 135], or health [95].

In this sense, emotional education might explain which individual factors help to understand why those who are most resistant to stress are those most capable of perceiving, understanding, and managing both their own emotions as well as those of others [120, 136, 137]. Such people possess a series of coping strategies and socio-emotional support networks that act not only as an explanatory factor but also as a protective factor against situations that put their biopsychosocial well-being at risk. Endowing our teachers with good emotional skills will therefore allow them to face stressful work situations by implementing active strategies within the school framework. This will have a positive impact by enabling better professional performance [138, 139] and greater personal fulfillment and by reducing stress [140, 141].

At this point, the concept of emotional education—understood as the ongoing educational process that an individual must undergo throughout their life [142]—takes on special meaning. Emotional education is a form of nonspecific primary prevention wherein skills applicable to several key areas (personal, social, family, work, …) are developed.

Many studies maintain that the best way to develop adequate emotional intelligence is through emotional education [143, 144, 145, 146]. Given the pressures suffered by both students and teachers alike, the education system offers the ideal context in which to carry out emotional education so as to improve the general well-being of the various stakeholders involved in the education system [147, 148].

7.3 Objectives of emotional education

The main objective of emotional education is to develop basic emotional skills for life and to improve individuals’ all-round development [142]. In this sense, it is essential to work comprehensively on the emotional skills that generically affect the learning processes [148]:

• Individuals’ relations with their surroundings, where the affective climate created as a result of the relations between students, their families, and teachers impacts the educational environment and, ultimately, the learning process.

• Perception and recognition of one’s own emotions as well as those of others.

• Understanding both basic as well as social emotions that are acquired throughout a learning and teaching process.

• Emotional regulation that is highlighted through the socialization process, wherein the desire to please others, to comply with norms, to achieve good academic performance, and to avoid disruptive behavior or when negotiating with teaching staff and classmates are situations that involve handling emotions correctly.

Specifically, emotional education pursues the following concrete objectives, according to Álvarez et al. [149]:

• To acquire knowledge of one’s own emotions.

• To identify emotions in others.

• To name emotions correctly.

• To regulate emotions.

• To increase tolerance of frustration.

• To prevent the negative effects of negative emotions.

• To generate positive emotions.

• Self-motivation.

• To adopt a positive attitude toward life.

• To learn to flow.

7.4 Effectiveness of EI programs

EI programs in the field of education are principally aimed at boosting positive emotions, since these are an indicator of well-being and can foster learning, in the sense that learning linked to an emotion is consolidated better and that emotion shapes and guides information processing [35, 92]. The aim is also to ensure appropriate handling of negative emotions, given that increased EI correlates negatively with disruptive behaviors.

Mayer and Salovey’s mixed EI model is the one to have aroused the greatest interest in the scientific community. This model offers a theoretical framework which, on the one hand, provides a knowledge of the emotional processes that are key to developing adequate psychological well-being, while, on the other hand, it helps to understand the mediating role played by certain emotional variables in students and their influence on psychological adjustment.

Recent research findings have pointed to the existence of a link between emotional factors and academic performance. This posits the need to foster research into which emotional factors enhance academic and professional performance together with well-being and personal adjustment vis-à-vis achieving people’s full and holistic development [150].

Although many of the studies carried out into emotional intelligence in the field of education have been conducted with university student samples, an increasing number of studies performed with children and adolescents [151] have shown that a low EI is linked to certain negative indicators—both inside and outside the school environment. Some of the conclusions to emerge may be summed up in the following points [152]:

• Deficit in students’ levels of well-being and psychological adjustment.

• Fewer and poorer quality interpersonal relations.

• Poorer academic performance.

• Appearance of disruptive behavior and use of addictive substances.

For this reason, certain authors [153, 154] have focused on evidencing the importance of working with emotional competencies from very early ages and throughout children’s schooling. Implementing emotional education boosts resilience and emotional well-being and reduces levels of stress, anxiety, and conflictive behavior [152, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159].

In this regard—and as pointed out previously—when looking at the early stages of education, primary school emerges as the optimal time at which to implement and develop such programs [160]. Although it is important to begin emotional identification at an early age, it is the period between when they are six and 12 years old that children—in addition to identifying their emotions—develop skills such as empathy and acquire language that affords them greater understanding and emotional expression.