Beyond Borders: Impacts of the Syrian Refugee Crisis on Jordan

Abstract

This study examines the profound socio-political and economic ramifications brought about by the Syrian refugee crisis in Jordan, a nation at the forefront of Middle Eastern hospitality toward displaced populations. With the influx of over 1.4 million Syrian refugees, Jordan faces unprecedented challenges that test its economic resilience, social fabric, political stability, and national identity. The research highlights Jordan’s commendable humanitarian response despite its limited resources, emphasizing the strain on public services, infrastructure, and the labor market. Furthermore, the study examines the international response to the crisis, critiquing the adequacy of global aid and the effectiveness of international policy interventions. It proposes a multidimensional approach to refugee support, encompassing immediate humanitarian aid, long-term development strategies, and policies that foster social integration and economic inclusion. This article underscores the need for a coordinated and compassionate international effort to alleviate the burdens on Jordan, encouraging a shift toward sustainable solutions that benefit both refugees and host communities. By highlighting the critical challenges and proposing actionable recommendations, this study contributes to the ongoing discourse on global refugee crises and their impact on host countries like Jordan.

1. Introduction

The Syrian refugee crisis, which began in March 2011, has emerged as one of the most significant humanitarian challenges of our time. Its ramifications extend far beyond the borders of Syria, impacting neighboring countries and the global community at large. Jordan, in particular, has been at the forefront of this crisis, grappling with an unprecedented influx of refugees.

Since the outbreak of the Syrian crisis in 2011, Jordan has emerged as a beacon of refuge for those fleeing the conflict, hosting over 1.4 million Syrian refugees to date, including approximately 660,000 Syrian refugees registered with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 524,475 thousand Syrian refugees live in urban areas in Jordan, while another 135,547 thousand refugees live in camps designated for Syrian refugees, according to statistics from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [1].

The crisis has deeply influenced Jordan’s socio-economic fabric, testing the nation’s infrastructure and public services to their limits. The country has witnessed a significant impact on its education system, healthcare services, water supply, and housing. The burden on Jordan’s economy is palpable, with unemployment rates climbing and public expenditure soaring to accommodate the needs of refugees. The social fabric of Jordan is also under strain, with tensions occasionally arising between host communities and refugees due to competition for jobs, resources, and services.

Nevertheless, Jordan’s approach to the crisis has been marked by an emphasis on solidarity and compassion, guided by its historical legacy of providing refuge to those in need. The government, along with local and international partners, has implemented various measures to integrate refugees into society, improve living conditions, and ensure access to education and healthcare. These efforts underscore Jordan’s commitment to upholding human dignity and providing a safe haven for displaced individuals.

Jordan’s response to the Syrian refugee crisis is a testament to its commitment to humanitarian values, despite the overwhelming challenges it faces. This includes economic strains, social and political upheaval, and increased pressures on infrastructure and resources. As the Syrian conflict continues, the number of refugees seeking safety in Jordan has surged, bringing the country’s capacity for support to its limits.

This study aims to explore the socio-political, economic, and humanitarian impacts of the Syrian refugee crisis on Jordan, leveraging a comprehensive analysis of secondary data complemented by available primary sources. The study utilizes a wide range of secondary sources, including peer-reviewed academic articles, reports from international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), government publications, and media outlets. Primary sources include government reports, official documents, and available statistics, ensuring a robust foundation for analysis. Selection criteria for these sources include relevance, credibility, and recency. The integration of diverse data sources aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the crisis’s multifaceted impacts.

Thus, this study explores the multifaceted impacts of this crisis on Jordan, a country that has shown remarkable resilience and adaptability in the face of such adversity, and provides a comprehensive analysis of the socio-political and economic consequences of the refugee influx in Jordan. Also, it seeks to understand how the crisis has reshaped Jordan’s national identity, its socio-political landscape, and its economic stability. In doing so, the study will offer insights into the broader implications of large-scale human displacements in the region. It will also explore the resilience and adaptive strategies employed by Jordan in managing the crisis, highlighting the lessons that can be learned from its experience. The findings of this study are not only significant for understanding the current situation in Jordan but also for informing future responses to similar crises globally.

2. Jordan’s role in refugee asylum and integration: a historical overview

Jordan, nestled in the heart of the Middle East, has long been recognized for its pivotal role in providing sanctuary to refugees. This tradition of asylum and integration is deeply rooted in the country’s rich history, geographical position, and the humanitarian ethos of its people and governance [1]. From the late eighteenth century, Jordan emerged as a refuge for those fleeing persecution and conflict, beginning with the waves of immigrants from the Caucasus region escaping Russian occupation [2].

As the twentieth century unfolded, Jordan continued to open its doors, notably to Syrian and Palestinian refugees, during key moments of turmoil and displacement in the region. The collapse of the Ottoman state and subsequent imposition of the French mandate on Syria catalyzed one of the first major influxes of refugees into Jordan. This period marked the arrival of significant figures and revolutionaries seeking asylum from political upheaval, who would later play pivotal roles in Jordan’s own political landscape [3]. The establishment of the modern state of Jordan further solidified its commitment to offering refuge, exemplified by the creation of the Ministry of Refugee Affairs in 1951. This initiative was aimed at providing support to refugees, a commitment that Jordan has steadfastly maintained through various regional conflicts, including the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, conflicts in Lebanon, the Gulf Wars, and the Syrian civil war. Jordan’s approach toward the Palestinian refugees has consistently been one of integration, offering Palestinian refugees the chance for a new life with full citizenship rights, while also preserving their rights to return and compensation [4].

The presence of Palestinians in Jordan is a significant aspect of the country’s refugee narrative. Palestinians in Jordan primarily include those with refugee status and Jordanian citizens of full Palestinian origin. The waves of Palestinian refugees began arriving in Jordan between 1947 and 1967, leading to a significant portion of the population being of Palestinian descent. Today, Jordan stands unique in the Arab world for having fully naturalized the Palestinian refugees of 1948, demonstrating its commitment to integrating refugees into the fabric of society.

Jordan’s experience with Palestinian refugees has been marked by efforts to provide stability and integration despite the challenges posed by limited resources and the influx of refugees from multiple regional conflicts over the past 70 years. The kingdom’s approach to the Palestinian refugee situation underscores its broader commitment to humanitarian principles and solidarity with displaced populations, while also highlighting the ongoing challenges of resource scarcity and the need for sustainable solutions.

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, through its historical engagement with refugee crises, exemplifies a model of resilience and adaptability. Its policy toward Palestinian refugees, characterized by efforts toward full integration and naturalization, sets a precedent for refugee treatment that balances humanitarian assistance with national security and social cohesion. As Jordan continues to grapple with the consequences of hosting refugees from four regional wars (the 1948, 1967 Arab-Israeli Wars, and the Gulf Wars of 1990–1991 and 2003), its story offers invaluable insights into the complexities of refugee integration and the importance of international support in addressing the multifaceted challenges faced by host countries.

Jordan’s refugee policy, however, is not without its complexities. It is shaped by a myriad of factors including humanitarian considerations, political dynamics, social harmony, and economic sustainability. Despite these challenges, Jordan has upheld its tradition of asylum, driven by a deep-seated belief in Arab solidarity and humanitarian values. This commitment has positioned Jordan as a key player in regional stability and humanitarian response, even as it underscores the need for increased international support to shoulder the burdens of hosting large refugee populations [5].

The ongoing challenges of the Syrian civil war highlight Jordan’s critical role and the lessons it offers in international cooperation, solidarity, and sustainable solutions to refugee crises. Jordan’s history of providing sanctuary emphasizes the importance of a global response to the needs of displaced populations, advocating for a collective effort to support host countries like Jordan in their mission to offer refuge and integration.

In conclusion, Jordan’s experience with refugees is a testament to its resilience, adaptability, and enduring commitment to humanitarian principles. As the kingdom continues to navigate the complexities of modern refugee crises, its history serves as a reminder of the critical importance of compassion, solidarity, and international support in addressing the needs of those displaced by conflict.

3. The Syrian upheaval: echoes across borders

The Syrian crisis, originating from the Arab Spring that engulfed the Arab world in 2010 and 2011, has become a defining moment in modern regional history. This wave of revolutions, beginning in Tunisia and quickly spreading to Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and, to a lesser extent, Jordan and Bahrain, was driven by the common goal of dismantling authoritarian regimes, marking a period of significant political upheaval [6]. Syria’s story within this broader narrative is particularly notable due to its deeply rooted authoritarian governance under the Assad family. The regime, established by Hafez al-Assad in 1970 and continued by his son Bashar, has been characterized by its repression, lack of freedoms, and continuous state of emergency, setting the stage for widespread calls for change [7].

The catalyst for the Syrian uprising was the harsh response to anti-government graffiti in Daraa in early 2011, which sparked protests across the nation. What began as peaceful demonstrations rapidly transformed into an armed conflict, exacerbated by severe crackdowns by Syrian security forces and their allies. This shift led to an enduring and bloody struggle, with the Syrian people’s demands for reform met with violence [8].

International attempts at mediation, led by the Arab League and the United Nations, faced significant obstacles due to strong support for the Assad regime from Russia and Iran. This support, which included military and economic assistance as well as diplomatic protection through Russia’s UN veto, has greatly complicated the conflict’s resolution. Now, in its Fourteenth year, the Syrian war has escalated into one of the most severe humanitarian crises in recent history, with devastating human costs including over half a million deaths, millions displaced, and extensive destruction of infrastructure. The ensuing refugee crisis has heavily impacted Syria itself, as well as neighboring countries like Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon, and Turkey, placing immense strain on these nations amidst limited international support.

Jordan, in particular, has faced significant challenges as one of the largest refugee-hosting countries globally, considering its refugee-to-population ratio. The influx of Syrian refugees has led to increased demands on resources, changes in demographic composition, and heightened security and political pressures. These challenges have necessitated a delicate balance between humanitarian responses and the socio-economic and security implications of hosting such a large displaced population. The situation has also exacerbated existing socio-political issues within Jordan, including debates over national identity, political reforms, and social cohesion, further testing the country’s resources and social fabric [9].

Ultimately, the Syrian crisis underscores the intricate dynamics of regional politics and the interconnectedness of Middle Eastern nations. Jordan’s experiences offer critical lessons on resilience, adaptability, and the vital role of international cooperation in addressing unparalleled challenges. As the conflict continues with no end in sight, the urgency for sustainable solutions to the refugee crisis and broader regional conflicts remains paramount.

4. Political repercussions of the Syrian refugee influx in resource-constrained Jordan

The unprecedented influx of hundreds of thousands of Syrian refugees into Jordan over the past years has significantly impacted the kingdom on multiple fronts. This movement has strained Jordan, a country already grappling with limited resources, and compounded existing political, economic, social, and environmental challenges.

4.1 Security and political stability concerns

Civil conflicts and internal crises are a significant catalyst for the escalation of terrorist activities worldwide. The Global Terrorism Database reveals a stark correlation, indicating that 88% of terrorist incidents in the past quarter-century occurred within countries embroiled in prolonged conflicts. This statistic highlights a disturbing trend where nations torn by war and strife become fertile grounds for terrorism, exacerbating an already volatile situation [10].

The Syrian crisis exemplifies the dire consequences of such conflicts on neighboring countries, with Jordan bearing the brunt of the spillover effects. Jordan’s proximity to Syria has made it vulnerable to the conflict’s repercussions, manifesting in military skirmishes along the border and missile strikes on Jordanian soil. The rise of the Islamic State (ISIS) near Jordan’s borders marked a significant increase in terrorist threats, leading to numerous casualties in several attacks across the nation.

Notably, the period following March 3, 2016, witnessed a surge in terrorist operations in Jordan, including the dismantling of a terrorist cell in Irbid that resulted in the death of eight security personnel. Subsequent attacks targeted intelligence offices and military positions, highlighting the growing audacity and capability of terrorist groups. The attack on Karak Castle and the thwarting of a major terrorist plot in 2018 underscores the persistent threat faced by Jordan, despite a temporary decline in attacks due to ISIS’s diminished power in the region [11].

Therefore, Jordan has faced direct attacks from ISIS, leading to casualties and highlighting vulnerabilities along its borders. The chaotic border situation, characterized by smuggling and unauthorized crossings, has heightened security challenges, necessitating increased vigilance against potential threats from radical organizations and militant sleeper cells. The Jordanian army frequently engages in armed confrontations with factions associated with Iran and Hezbollah, as these groups and drug traffickers persist in their efforts to penetrate Jordan’s borders [12].

The infiltration of ISIS/Da’esh ideology among Syrian refugee groups and returning Jordanian fighters from Syria and Iraq remains a significant concern. Attacks on security forces and tourist sites underscore the ongoing risk to internal security and the potential for future sectarian conflicts. Moreover, the perception of insecurity, exacerbated by terrorist activities, has adversely affected Jordan’s tourism industry, further highlighting the extensive implications of the Syrian crisis on Jordan’s societal and security landscape [13].

Prior to the Syrian crisis, Jordan faced challenges with extremism and terrorism, notably the 2005 Amman hotel bombings. The state responded by targeting at-risk youth through various means, addressing poverty, unemployment, failed development, lack of social justice, and corruption. However, post-Syrian revolution, extremist ideologies, particularly from ISIS, found fertile ground in Jordan, drawing hundreds into their ranks. This included Jordanians from various backgrounds, not limited to the uneducated or economically marginalized but also middle-class individuals and even those from areas traditionally supportive of the regime. With jihadism (spreading through mosques, schools, and universities), extremist groups have appealed to a broad swath of society, some of whom have been indoctrinated, trained, and deployed in combat roles in Syria and Iraq [14]. Jihadism refers to militant Islamic movements aiming to establish Islamic rule through jihad. It embodies extremist ideologies promoting armed struggle against perceived enemies of Islam, influenced by historical and modern interpretations of jihad.

The Syrian crisis has significantly heightened security concerns within Jordan, leading to increased incidents of cross-border violence and necessitating a greater security burden due to smuggling and infiltration attempts. This situation has necessitated a shift toward increased militarization, with the Jordanian ruling elite prioritizing military strength as essential for maintaining national security and stability. However, this emphasis on militarization has been to the detriment of civil institutions, particularly in sectors such as education and health, thereby undermining their effectiveness and further entrenching the military as one of the few institutions that retain public trust.

Jordan’s counter-terrorism efforts have been partly successful, with a significant reduction in terrorist incidents from 2019 to 2021. This success is attributed to the effective strategies implemented by the Jordanian General Intelligence Department, disrupting ISIS operations and preventing further attacks. However, the continuous threat of terrorism, fueled by the ongoing Syrian conflict, underscores the need for sustained vigilance and international cooperation to combat these challenges.

The correlation between civil wars and the rise in terrorism demands a concerted effort from the global community to address the root causes of conflict and instability. Strengthening governance, promoting social cohesion, and investing in economic development are critical to mitigating the conditions that foster terrorism. Moreover, supporting nations like Jordan, which are on the frontlines of this battle, is imperative to ensuring regional stability and security.

The analysis underscores the intricate link between internal crises and the proliferation of terrorism, highlighting the importance of a multifaceted approach to counter-terrorism that goes beyond military interventions. Addressing the socio-political and economic grievances that fuel conflicts is crucial for a long-term solution to terrorism and ensuring a safer world for future generations.

4.2 Impact on Jordanian national identity

Jordan’s national identity, deeply rooted in tribal affiliations, commitment to Arabism, allegiance to the monarchy, and a distinction from Palestinian identity, risks dilution amid the demographic changes brought by the refugee influx. The dilution of the multiethnic Jordanian population in the context of the Syrian refugee crisis can manifest through various socio-political and cultural processes. The substantial influx of Syrian refugees has not only altered the demographic landscape but also introduced complex dynamics that could potentially dilute the traditional Jordanian national identity. These dynamics include intermarriage, the introduction of different ideas and cultural practices, and the possible shift in political power dynamics.

Intermarriage between Jordanians and Syrian refugees can lead to a blending of cultures, traditions, and identities. Such unions may contribute to the emergence of a more diverse societal fabric, where the distinctions between Syrian and Jordanian identities become less pronounced over time. While intermarriage can foster integration and social cohesion, it also poses questions about the preservation of distinct Jordanian cultural and tribal identities.

The influx of refugees brings different ideas, values, and cultural practices, further diversifying Jordan’s already multiethnic society. These new influences can enrich the Jordanian cultural landscape but also challenge traditional norms and values. The integration of diverse cultures requires careful navigation to ensure that it contributes positively to society without undermining the existing social cohesion and national identity.

Political power dynamics could also shift if refugees are integrated into the Jordanian political system. Allowing Syrian refugees to participate in political processes might lead to changes in policy directions and national priorities. While this could democratize the political landscape and bring fresh perspectives, it also raises concerns about the potential for refugees to influence political decisions in ways that might not align with the interests of indigenous Jordanians. This scenario necessitates a balanced approach to political integration, ensuring that the rights of refugees are respected while safeguarding Jordanian national interests.

The Syrian crisis has sparked debates on the need to reevaluate Jordan’s open-border policy, highlighting the balance between maintaining hospitality and preserving national interests and security. This situation demands a strategic rethinking of asylum and migration policies to safeguard Jordan’s national identity without forsaking its humanitarian legacy.

The demographic landscape of Jordan has been profoundly transformed by the influx of Syrian refugees, marking a significant shift in the country’s social fabric. Historically accustomed to waves of refugees, Jordan faces a new challenge with the Syrian crisis as the population balance tilts dramatically. The arrival of 1.4 million Syrians, as reported by U.S. ambassador to Amman Alice Wells, has notably altered the demographic composition, with indigenous Jordanians now constituting as little as 27% of the total population. Indigenous Jordanians, often known as Trans-Jordanians, are defined as the populations residing in the modern-day territory of Jordan prior to the establishment of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1946 and before the arrival of Palestinian refugees in 1948, along with later refugee influxes from Syria and other regions. This term distinguishes these communities by their historical and cultural roots in the land east of the Jordan River, setting them apart from groups that have migrated or sought refuge in the region over subsequent decades. Indigenous Jordanians include not only the tribal and Bedouin populations traditionally inhabiting this area but also the urban and rural communities that have cultivated a unique Jordanian identity through time. These communities are marked by enduring social, cultural, and political connections to what is now the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Despite significant demographic shifts brought about by the arrival of Palestinian and Syrian refugees due to regional conflicts, the term “indigenous Jordanians” continues to refer to those with an ancestral and cultural heritage deeply ingrained in the area’s premigration history. This distinction is vital for grasping the contemporary demographic and social dynamics of Jordan amid the challenges of integrating diverse cultures and maintaining national identity in the face of refugee influxes. Therefore, indigenous Jordanians, or Trans-Jordanians, are integral to discussions surrounding national identity, social unity, and the kingdom’s future trajectory.

The sense of a diluting national identity is palpable among Jordanians, who increasingly fear becoming a minority in their own country. This demographic imbalance has not only stirred societal unrest but also intensified discussions on the preservation of Jordan’s cultural heritage and the principles that have historically defined Jordanian identity. The challenge is further compounded by the deeply ingrained importance of tribal identity in Jordan, which plays a crucial role in social cohesion and political life. The growing presence of outsiders, including Syrian refugees, has tested the limits of social integration, revealing resistance to subcultural identities that diverge from the traditional Jordanian ethos.

The consequences of this demographic shift extend beyond social tensions, touching on issues of governance, public policy, and the capacity of civil institutions to adapt to a rapidly changing society. The Jordanian government is tasked with navigating these complex dynamics, striving to maintain social harmony while ensuring the effective integration of refugees into the broader community. This situation underscores the need for a balanced approach that respects Jordan’s rich cultural heritage and tribal traditions while embracing the diversity brought by new arrivals [15].

As Jordan continues to grapple with the impacts of the Syrian refugee crisis, the questions of national identity and social cohesion remain at the forefront of public discourse. The country’s experience offers valuable lessons on the challenges and opportunities of integrating large refugee populations, highlighting the importance of fostering an inclusive national identity that can accommodate the complexities of a diverse society.

The influx of Syrian refugees into Jordan, a consequence of the Syrian crisis, has significantly impacted Jordan’s socio-political landscape, particularly challenging the preservation of its national identity. Jordan, known for its historical hospitality toward refugees, faces a new test with the Syrian crisis. This challenge is not solely due to the sheer number of refugees but also arises from the refusal of a portion of the Syrian refugee population to return to their homeland, thereby intensifying the national identity crisis in Jordan.

The ongoing settlement of Syrian refugees under international pressure complicates the narrative of Jordanian national identity. Historical openness to refugees is scrutinized as the government faces calls for a zero-immigration policy amid growing disillusionment among Jordanians. The issue of national identity becomes further tangled with the challenges of social integration, reflecting a broader identity crisis within Jordan. This crisis impedes progress and political reform, underlining the necessity for a nuanced approach that aligns government policies with homeland interests [16].

Moreover, the phenomenon is not new to Jordan, having hosted numerous refugee waves historically, yet the Syrian crisis presents unprecedented challenges. The presence of Syrian refugees has escalated concerns regarding Jordan’s demographic composition, sparking debates over national identity. The situation underscores the urgency of addressing this delicate issue, as the identity crisis could hinder Jordan’s socio-political stability and reform efforts. A reconsideration of the open-door policy is deemed essential for maintaining societal security and the integrity of Jordanian national identity.

The enduring presence of Syrian refugees in Jordan, a result of ongoing conflict and instability in Syria, has prompted significant discourse regarding the impact on Jordanian national identity. This scenario has unfolded against the backdrop of Jordan’s long-standing tradition of welcoming refugees, which has been a hallmark of its foreign policy and humanitarian approach. The kingdom’s identity, historically characterized by a mosaic of tribal, regional, and national elements, faces unprecedented pressures as it seeks to accommodate the needs of refugees while preserving the cohesive fabric of its society [15].

Jordan’s national ethos, which emphasizes unity, hospitality, and Arab solidarity, has been tested by the realities of hosting a large refugee population. The integration of Syrian refugees into Jordanian society poses both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, it reflects Jordan’s commitment to Arab brotherhood and humanitarian values; on the other, it raises concerns about the long-term implications for social cohesion, economic stability, and the preservation of cultural heritage. The government and its citizens are thus caught in a delicate balancing act, seeking to uphold their humanitarian obligations without compromising the essence of Jordanian identity.

The complexity of this situation is further compounded by the economic strains placed on Jordan’s infrastructure and resources. The influx of refugees has led to increased competition for jobs, housing, and public services, exacerbating existing economic challenges and fueling tensions within communities. These dynamics not only affect the day-to-day lives of Jordanians but also influence the broader discourse on national identity as economic realities become intertwined with questions of belonging and citizenship.

4.2.1 Jordan’s open-door policy reconsideration

Jordan’s reputation for hospitality toward refugees now faces a critical test, as the continuous open-door policy may no longer be sustainable without compromising national interests. The need for a strategic approach to asylum and migration is evident, requiring a balance between generosity and the preservation of national identity and security. The government’s response to public calls for a zero-immigration policy has been lukewarm, leading to growing disillusionment among Jordanians with their government’s handling of the crisis.

In response to these challenges, there have been calls within Jordan for a more nuanced approach to refugee policy, one that aligns humanitarian assistance with national security and economic priorities. This includes exploring sustainable solutions for refugee integration that can contribute positively to the Jordanian economy and society, while also considering the rights and needs of refugees. The debate over national identity and refugee policy is thus not just about the immediate challenges of integration but also about envisioning the future of Jordan as a diverse, inclusive, and resilient society.

Ultimately, the Syrian refugee crisis offers Jordan an opportunity to redefine its national identity in the twenty-first century, embracing a more inclusive and multifaceted understanding of what it means to be Jordanian. This redefinition requires thoughtful engagement with the complexities of identity, migration, and integration, grounded in a commitment to social justice, economic development, and political stability. By navigating these challenges with foresight and compassion, Jordan can strengthen its national identity, ensuring that it remains vibrant and relevant in a changing regional and global context.

4.3 Weakening national sentiment and strengthening narrow sub-affiliations in Jordan

Since its establishment in 1921, Jordan has embodied a Pan-Arab ethos, positioning itself as a beacon of Arab unity and nationalism. This identity, deeply ingrained in the state’s philosophy, has been significantly challenged by the Syrian crisis. The influx of Syrian refugees into Jordan has not only strained resources but has also led to a noticeable shift in the national sentiment among Jordanians. This shift is evident in the growing disconnect between the political elite’s narrative of brotherhood and solidarity toward Syrian refugees and the broader societal concerns regarding the pressures on economic, social, security, and health systems [17].

The Syrian crisis has illuminated and, in many ways, accelerated the retreat into narrower tribal and regional affiliations, overshadowing the once dominant Pan-Arab identity. This retreat signifies a profound transformation in Jordanian society, where narrower identities are being strengthened at the expense of collective national sentiment. This phenomenon is not isolated to Jordan but echoes across many Arab states, where the challenge of forging a cohesive national identity has long been contentious. The Syrian refugee crisis has significantly impacted Jordanian society, particularly in terms of national identity and social cohesion. With over 1.4 million Syrian refugees, including about 660,000 registered with the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), their presence has prompted debates about Jordan’s national identity. Syrian refugees in Jordan reside in both urban areas and designated refugee camps. Urban refugees integrate into local communities, while those in camps, such as Zaatari, have access to shelter, education, and healthcare but face restrictions on movement and employment.

The influx has accentuated challenges in forging a cohesive national identity within Jordan, a country already navigating complex demographic dynamics with previous waves of refugees. The presence of a large number of Syrians has led to a reevaluation of Jordan’s open-border policy and sparked discussions on balancing hospitality with national interests. This scenario tests the resilience of Jordan’s social fabric and raises questions about the integration of diverse cultures within its borders, echoing broader concerns across many Arab states about the difficulty of forming a unified national identity amidst significant demographic shifts.

The declining belief in Arab nationalism, compounded by the economic and social pressures of hosting a large refugee population, has fostered feelings of injustice, exclusion, and marginalization among Jordanian citizens. This situation has underscored the fragility of national ties, exacerbating societal divisions and highlighting the complexities of identity and loyalty in a multiethnic society. The crisis has not only marked the beginning of the end of an era for Pan-Arab ideology but has also raised questions about the sustainability of such an identity in the face of demographic and political shifts.

Furthermore, the crisis has spotlighted the historical complexities of Jordan’s national identity, which has been a delicate balance between native Jordanian and Palestinian identities, further complicated by the influx of Syrian refugees. The Syrian refugee crisis had introduced new dimensions to the discourse on national identity, political loyalty, and citizenship rights within Jordan [18].

The situation is further aggravated by the absence of a clear national strategy to manage the refugee crisis, leading to a widening gap between the government and its citizens. This gap reveals a deep-seated mistrust toward the state, which is perceived as corrupt, inefficient, and unresponsive to the needs of its people [19]. The ongoing debate over national identity reflects the broader challenges faced by Jordan and other Arab countries in navigating the intricacies of identity, loyalty, and citizenship in a rapidly changing Middle East [20].

The Syrian crisis has significantly exacerbated division and polarization within Jordanian society. The Islamist factions have voiced their support for the Syrian revolution, championing the Syrian people’s rights to freedom, dignity, and life. In contrast, leftist and Pan-Arab nationalist parties have sided with the Syrian regime, viewing the revolution as a foreign conspiracy designed to weaken Syria for the benefit of imperialist interests, notably Israel, given the regime’s refusal to reconcile with Israel and its support for national resistance movements in Palestine and Lebanon. This ideological schism has muddled the Jordanian political arena, potentially laying the groundwork for future divisions, increased tension, and instability [21].

In conclusion, the Syrian crisis has served as a catalyst for a profound reexamination of national sentiment in Jordan, revealing the limitations of Pan-Arab identity in addressing contemporary challenges. As Jordan continues to navigate these complexities, the strengthening of narrow and sub-affiliations at the expense of a unified national identity poses significant questions for the future of social cohesion, political stability, and the very notion of statehood in Jordan and the broader Arab world.

5. Calls for global solidarity and sustainable development

The influx of Syrian refugees has placed immense pressure on the kingdom’s resources, infrastructure, and social services, prompting the government to devise comprehensive response plans aimed at addressing the humanitarian and developmental needs of both refugees and host communities. From 2015 to 2023, these plans have sought to secure funding from the international community, with a focus on supporting crucial sectors such as education, healthcare, housing, and employment opportunities for refugees.

Despite the global acknowledgment of Jordan’s efforts, the financial support pledged by donors and the international community has fallen short of the actual needs. Out of the estimated $22.1 billion required to fully implement the nine response plans, only about $10.3 billion has been received, translating to a 45.9% funding rate. This discrepancy highlights a significant deficit in financing, with an $11.8 billion gap remaining, underscoring the challenges Jordan faces in sustaining its humanitarian initiatives. The annual analysis of funding reveals a fluctuating landscape of international support. For instance, in 2018, Jordan received its highest funding rate at 63.9%, demonstrating a momentary peak in donor engagement. Conversely, 2023 experienced a low with only 29.2% of the required $2.276 billion funded, indicating a growing concern over the sustainability of aid amidst the protracted nature of the Syrian crisis [22].

The ramifications of this funding shortfall are multifaceted. On the one hand, Jordan’s commitment to providing sanctuary and essential services to Syrian refugees remains unwavering, as evidenced by the government’s efforts to include refugees in national schools, healthcare systems, and labor markets. On the other hand, the financial strain of these commitments has led to increased pressure on Jordan’s budget and resources, particularly water, which is already a scarce commodity in the desert kingdom [23].

Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Expatriate Affairs, Ayman Al-Safadi, has articulated Jordan’s position, stating that the nation has reached the “maximum” of its ability to bear the asylum burden. Al-Safadi emphasizes that Jordan has exerted every possible effort to ensure refugees are afforded the essentials for a decent life, advocating that victims of conflict should not become victims of neglect. He urges the international community to take concrete actions to support Jordan and other host countries in providing a dignified existence for refugees [24].

Addressing the dual challenges of refugee assistance and sustainable development requires a concerted effort from the international community. King Abdullah II, in various forums, has consistently highlighted the need for a global partnership to support Jordan’s humanitarian efforts. This call for support is not merely a plea for financial aid but a call to action for long-term, flexible funding mechanisms that can adapt to the evolving needs of refugees and host communities. The Jordanian government, through initiatives like the Jordan Response Plan, seeks not only to provide immediate relief but also to integrate refugees into the fabric of society, fostering social cohesion and mutual prosperity. The international community’s response to this call has been mixed, with some countries and organizations stepping up their contributions, while others have lagged behind. The disparity in funding underscores the importance of shared responsibility and the need for a strategic approach to refugee support that balances humanitarian aid with developmental investments. As Jordan continues to bear the brunt of the Syrian refugee crisis, the document emphasizes the critical role of international solidarity in ensuring the sustainability of its response efforts [25].

In conclusion, Jordan’s humanitarian response to the Syrian crisis exemplifies its commitment to aiding refugees despite facing significant financial challenges. The prolonged nature of this crisis, now entering its second decade, underscores the pressing need for innovative and sustainable solutions to address the complex issues arising from migration. These challenges not only affect the refugees and their host communities but also pose broader implications for international relations and global humanitarian efforts. To effectively bridge the funding gap and support the affected populations, a concerted effort from the international community is required [26]. This includes increased financial contributions and a commitment to long-term partnerships that prioritize resilience, dignity, and collective action. Addressing one of the most critical humanitarian challenges of our era demands more than temporary fixes; it calls for a strategic approach that encompasses both immediate relief and long-term development strategies.

6. Conclusions and recommendations

The Syrian refugee crisis has unfolded as a formidable challenge for Jordan, presenting a complex array of socio-political, economic, and security challenges. Jordan hosts nearly 4 million refugees of different nationalities, including almost 1.4 million Syrians. All in all, this is over a third of the country’s 11 million population. With over 1.4 million Syrian refugees seeking sanctuary, the impact on Jordan’s infrastructure, public services, and national security has been profound. Economic strains manifest through heightened unemployment and budgetary pressures, while the social fabric of the nation grapples with the integration and welfare of refugees.

This study underscores the urgency for a comprehensive response strategy, emphasizing the role of both national and international stakeholders in alleviating the crisis’s impacts. Enhanced international aid is critical, focusing on healthcare, education, and housing to address both immediate and long-term needs of refugees and host communities. Moreover, Jordan’s approach to refugee integration requires innovative policies that facilitate economic contributions from refugees, including job creation and vocational training initiatives. Strengthening the national security framework is equally crucial to ensuring stability and addressing any arising security concerns.

Collaboration emerges as a key theme, advocating for a synergistic partnership between the Jordanian government, international organizations, civil society, and refugees themselves. Such collaborative efforts are vital for crafting sustainable solutions to the multifaceted challenges presented by the refugee crisis. A proactive, inclusive approach can foster resilience, stability, and social cohesion, paving the way for Jordan’s successful navigation through the crisis and toward long-term development and peace.

In light of the study’s findings on the socio-political effects of the Syrian asylum crisis, a series of targeted recommendations are proposed to harness positive change. Engagement with the study’s insights by a broad spectrum of Jordanian and international actors is essential for informed policy reformulation and strategic planning. Further research into the crisis’s nuances will bolster Jordan’s response capabilities, highlighting the need for a nuanced understanding of the crisis’s impact on Jordanian society and governance structures.

Public freedoms and media roles must be amplified to ensure a well-informed public discourse that transcends government narratives, fostering trust and engagement among Jordan’s populace. The international community’s role is underscored in recognizing and supporting Jordan’s humanitarian efforts, with a call for substantial aid and a concerted push toward resolving the Syrian conflict and facilitating refugee repatriation.

Addressing the underpinnings of extremism, terrorism, and corruption is fundamental, with a call for religious and community leaders to forefront a narrative of peace and integrity. Rebuilding national identity and unity is imperative to counteract the fragmentation of societal loyalties, setting the stage for a cohesive national ethos.

Democracy and political reform are highlighted as critical avenues for Jordan’s advancement, emphasizing participation, transparency, accountability, and the denouncement of violence and extremism. These recommendations aim not only to navigate the immediate challenges posed by the Syrian refugee crisis but also to leverage this period of adversity as a catalyst for substantial socio-political transformation and enrichment in Jordan.