Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India:
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
www.cbspd.com
|
customercare@cbspd.com
Environmental pollution is becoming a major global issue with increasing anthropogenic activities that release massive toxic pollutants into the land, air, and water. Nanomaterials have gained the most popularity in the last decades over conventional methods because of their high surface area to volume ratio and higher reactivity. Nanomaterials including metal, metal oxide, zero-valent ions, carbonaceous nanomaterials, and polymers function as adsorbents, catalysts, photocatalysts, membrane (filtration), disinfectants, and sensors in the detection and removal of various pollutants such as heavy metals, organic pollutants, dyes, industrial effluents, and pathogenic microbial. Polymer-inorganic hybrid materials or nanocomposites are highly studied for the removal of various contaminants. Starch, a heteropolysaccharide, is a natural biopolymer generally incorporated with other metal, metal oxide, and other polymeric nanoparticles and has been reported in various environmental remediation applications as a low-cost alternative for petroleum-based polymers. Therefore, this chapter mainly highlights the various nanomaterials used in environmental remediation, starch-based hybrid nanomaterials, and their application and limitations.
Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Thiviya Punniamoorthy
Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Terrence Madhujith
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
*Address all correspondence to: ashogamage@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Environmental pollution is becoming a serious global problem that society faces today. Ongoing anthropogenic activities, extensive food and agriculture practices, industrialization, and urbanization release huge amounts of pollutants into the environment that can cause air, water, and land pollution, consequently threatening to human, animal health, and ecosystem [1, 2]. These toxic pollutants can enter the human body either through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption and adversely affect health. Further, bioaccumulation of some heavy metals through the food chain and persistent organic pollutants in biota and fishes poses a huge threat to humans and wildlife and requires sustainable, efficient, and low-cost technologies to detect, monitor, and remediate the hazardous pollutants [1].
Different forms of pollutants are released into the environment; soil, water, and air. Organic substances (pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, oil spills, phenols, chloroform, hydrocarbons), heavy metals and metalloids (Cr2+, Pb2+, Co2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, As, Hg), dyes, industrial effluents, sewage, as well as microbial pathogens are few contaminants in soil and water. While, contaminants such as toxic gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon oxides, ozone), suspended airborne particles, and volatile organic compounds are found in the atmosphere [3, 4].
These contaminants in soil, water, and air are remediated by using different conventional techniques, such as physical, chemical, and biological methods [4, 5, 6]. These techniques may be used in combination with one another to remediate contaminated sites. Adsorption (clay minerals, industrial wastes, biomass, biochar, activated carbon, biopolymer), chemical treatments, bioremediation, coagulation and flocculation, ion exchange, membrane-filtration, solidification/stabilization, electrokinetics, and electrochemical treatments technologies have been used in heavy metal removal from soil and water [7]. Bioremediation using microorganisms and plants helps to detoxify or remove crude oil, heavy metal removal, and pesticide degradation from soil and water [4, 5].
However, the majority of these conventional techniques are expensive, laborious, environmentally destructive, time-consuming methods, also involved in the consumption of chemicals and the generation of undesirable toxic by-products that are hazardous to the environment. Further, complexities of the mixture of different compounds, high volatility, and low reactivity of contaminants also limit the applications in environmental remediation [3, 5, 8]. New environmental remediation technologies are constantly being explored, and recent studies have focused on developing new environmental remediation technologies using various nanomaterials [3].
2.1 Nanotechnology and its advantages and applications
Nanotechnology has gained much attention in environmental remediation over the last few decades [1]. Nanotechnology is an advanced technology that works on the material in nanometer scale (1–100 nm) and produces materials, devices, and systems with specific and novel properties and functions by controlling the size and the shape of matters [1, 4, 9]. The nanomaterials are broadly categorized as organic and inorganic nanomaterials. Some literatures is classified based on materials used in the synthesis process; inorganic (metal, metal oxide, zero-valent metals), carbon-based [graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs)], polymer-based (dendrimers or polyamidoamine), and composite based nanomaterials [3, 10].
Nanomaterials have several advantages in environmental remediation over conventional methods; cost-effective, simple to use, energy conservative, sustainable, and more effective methods. Due to the properties such as smaller size (1–100 nm) and higher surface area to volume ratio of nanomaterials, they provide more reaction surface area, which increases reactivity and thus its sensitivity and effectiveness. Nanoparticles have a high sorption capacity for inorganic and organic compounds because of their specific characteristics; large surface area, an increased number of surface activation sites, a good affinity to other species [11]. Further, nanotechnology helps in the development of remediation technologies that are specific and efficient for a particular pollutant [3, 9].
Nanotechnology has potential applications in many fields, including food and agriculture, packaging, pharmaceutical, drug delivery, energy, and pollution treatment [1, 12]. Of which, the application of nanotechnology in pollution control and environmental remediation has gained popularity over the last decade; wastewater treatment, cleaning groundwater, and remediation of soil contaminated with pollutants. In the field of environment, nanotechnology has been used in pollution detection (sensing and detection), prevention of pollution, and purification/remediation of contamination [9]. Thus, nanotechnology provides a sustainable solution to the global challenges of protecting water, soil and providing cleaner air [13].
2.2 Nanomaterials in environmental remediation
Various nanomaterials such as inorganic, carbonaceous nanomaterials, polymer-based nanomaterial are used in environmental remediation (air, soil, and water) as adsorbents, catalyst, photocatalyst, membrane (filtration), disinfectants, and sensors [1, 3, 14].
Metal (silver, gold), metal oxides (iron oxides, TiO2, MgO, Fe2O3, Al2O3), and zero-valent metals (Fe0, Zn0, Sn0, and Al0) based nanoparticles are mostly studied for environmental remediation including disinfection of water, treatment of drinking water, groundwater, wastewater, and air, because of their adsorption, antibacterial, antimicrobial, photocatalytic, reductive dehalogenation, desulfurization, and catalytic reduction activities [3, 15, 16]. Carbonaceous materials in different structural configurations; fullerene, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), and graphene and used in the removal of organic and inorganic contaminants from air and water due to its adsorption and photocatalytic property [3].
Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) is the most widely studied nanoparticle in soil remediation [12] and is used for reductive immobilization of heavy metals in soil that decreases the bioavailability and mobility of heavy metals and prevents leaching into groundwater and transfers to the food chain [1]. Further, nanomaterials such as nanoparticles (NPs) (metal; Au, Ag, Fe, bimetal; Fe/Ni, Ag/Cu, metal oxides; TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3), nanotubes (carbon nanotubes, halloysite nanotubes), and nanocomposites (graphene oxide) have been reported to utilize in detection, degradation, and removal by adsorption of pesticides [17].
Emission of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases), volatile organic compounds (ethylene, aniline, benzene), are controlled either by separation or capturing, such as filtration, absorption in liquids, adsorption on solids, or a combination of these processes. In addition, bioaerosols (aerosols of biological origin such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi), an indoor air pollutant, can rapidly spread with airflow and can cause numerous diseases, including infections and allergies. The air filtration process using antimicrobial materials such as Ag NPs, Cu NPs, CNTs, and natural products is the most applied and effective technique to remove bioaerosols [1].
Various nanomaterials have also been studied for the treatment of drinking water and industrial wastewater, including adsorbents (nZVI or Fe, MnO, ZnO, MgO, Al2O3, TiO2, Magnetite or Fe3O4, CNT), photocatalysts (ZnO, TiO2, metal-based nanocomposites such as Ag/ZnO and Pt/ZnO, CdS, ZnS: Cu, CdS: Eu, CdS: Mn), electrocatalysts (Pt, Pd, Au/metal oxides TiO2, MgO, Fe2O3, Al2O3), nano-membranes (MWCNTs, electrospun PVDF, PVC, sodium titanate nanobelt membrane), disinfectants with antibacterial effects (Ag NPs, chitosan NPs, TiO2), nanosensors (Au NPs, Ag NPs) [14, 16, 18].
2.3 Hybrid nanomaterials
The term hybrid refers to fusion, joining, or mixing of characteristics at the molecular level, which generates a hybrid material owning the effective functionality of single components and eliminates undesirable characteristics [19, 20]. In this context, hybrid nanomaterials are defined as materials that are made up of two or more organic or inorganic components such as organic-organic (starch-cellulose), inorganic-inorganic (TiO2-Ag), and organic-inorganic (starch-TiO2) compounds, connected at the nanometer scale, combine the intrinsic characteristics of its individual constituents to additional properties due to synergistic effects between the components [21, 22]. These hybrid materials are synthesized by different methods such as covalent immobilization, electrostatic binding, polymerization methods, among others [21]. The properties of the hybrid material vary with the material (organic or inorganic), structure, and different component interface, and the optimum combination can enhance mechanical strength and thermosensitivity, improve thermal and chemical stability, and regulate optical, anticorrosive, magnetic, electrical, and thermal properties as well as fire retardancy [23]. Because of their excellent mechanical, physical, and tribological characteristics, hybrid nanomaterials are widely used in the area of food packaging, plant protection, electrochemistry, and various additional applications in the environmental, biotechnological, and agri-food sectors [19].
Generally, hybrid materials are classified into two categories depending on the intra- and intermolecular interactions among the organic matrix and cross-linking agent [21, 23];
Class I (organic and inorganic exhibiting weaker interactions such as noncovalent interactions; van der Waals and hydrogen bonding).
Class II (organic and inorganic exhibiting strong interactions such as covalent, ionic, ionocovalent, and coordinative bonding).
“Polymer-based composites” or “nanocomposites” can be defined as hybrid organic-inorganic composites when incorporating either component in nanoscale and generally obtained by incorporation of a small quantity of an inorganic component into an organic or a polymer matrix in order to form a new component with enhanced properties [24]. The “bio-nano composites” are the materials that comprise particles with at least one dimension in the range of 1–100 nm and a constituent(s) of the biological origin or maybe biopolymers.
Biopolymers (natural polymers) have received much attention in recent last decades due to their abundance, low toxicity, low cost, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and multiple functionalities [25]. A variety of biopolymers such as polysaccharides (cellulose, chitin, chitosan, pectin, starch, dextran, xanthan, guar gum, fucoidan, heparin, hyaluronan, and pullulan), proteins (albumin, casein, collagen, fibrinogen, and gelatin), polylactic acid (PLA), and nucleic acids have been used as alternative eco-friendly materials to replace synthetic polymers or petroleum-based polymers (PP, PE, and epoxies) partially or even totally [25, 26, 27]. Polysaccharide-based hybrid nanocomposites have become increasingly essential materials over the past decades [25, 27]. Many studies have reported the application of polysaccharide-based nanocomposites (natural polymer) in various fields such as food, biomedical, ecofriendly and sustainable food packaging, and environmental pollution control and remediation [28, 29, 30].
Due to the poor barrier, mechanical, and processing properties, natural polymers (biopolymers) are incorporated with other synthetic polymers or nanomaterials to improve their properties and applications [31]. Polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitin, chitosan, and starch are the most studied biopolymers and used in biodegradable nanocomposites with metal nanoparticles (Au, Ag, Cu, and Pd), metal oxide nanoparticles (TiO2, ZnO, CuO, Cu2O, SiO2, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4) and carbon nanomaterials (graphene and carbon nanotubes, CNTs) [25].
3. Starch hybrid nanomaterials for environmental remediation
3.1 Starch
Starch, a natural, abundant, renewable, biocompatible, and biodegradable biopolymer, is naturally found in many plants as the primary source of energy and reserved in many parts of plants such as stalks, stems, roots, tubers, and seeds; main sources being cassava, wheat, rice, barley, maize or corn, banana, and potatoes, among others. Starch is a heteropolysaccharide that comprises d-glucose monomers joined with glycosidic bonds and can be denoted as (C6H10O5)n with the basic chemical formula. Starch is a heteropolysaccharide composed of two types of macromolecules: linear amylase (around 10–30% of starch granule) and branched amylopectin (remaining 70–90% of starch granule). Amylose is a linear polysaccharide chain of d-glucose units linked by α-(1,4)-glycosidic bond with a degree of polymerization in a range of 300–10,000. Amylopectin is a very high-molecular-weight polymer with a backbone structure of amylase cross-linked through α-(1,6) glycosidic bonds. The basic structure of amylose and amylopectin are shown in Figure 1 [25, 32, 33].
Figure 1.
Structures of starch: (a) amylose and (b) amylose pectin.
3.2 Starch hybrid nanomaterials
Starch-based nanocomposites have wide applications in the fields of food and agriculture, packaging, biomedical, and environmental remediation as emulsion stabilizers, fat replacers, flexible films, carriers of bioactive compounds, drug delivery, and adsorbents in sewage treatment or wastewater treatment [34, 35, 36]. Starch nanoparticles are usually smaller than 300 nm in dimension with a high specific surface area. The various forms of starch-based nanoparticles are starch nanoparticles, starch nanospheres, starch micelles, starch vesicles, starch nanogels, and starch nanofibers [36].
Starch is a natural polymer, gained much attention because of its renewability, biodegradability, abundance, eco-friendly, relatively low cost, non-toxic, high adsorptive capacities, amenable to various chemical modifications, and cohesive film-forming properties. Starch molecules can bind with the heavy metal ions or contaminants through the functional (hydroxyl) groups on the starch structure [37, 38]. Further, high amylopectin content in starch has powerful swelling properties that are important in sorption-based applications [39]. In most published works, carbohydrates have been used as reducing, stabilizing, and/or complexing agents [40].
However, starch in a pure or native form has drawbacks such as poor processability, high brittleness, susceptibility to retrogradation, high viscosity, low adsorption capacity, and greater hydrophilicity or high-water absorption capacity, which limits its many applications in the environmental field. To overcome this problem and to obtain water-insoluble materials, starch is modified by physically [hydrothermal processing (i.e. gelatinization)] or chemically (etherification, esterification, crosslinking, grafting, oxidation, and enzymatic hydrolysis) or a combination of these two methods [41, 42, 43, 44]. Polysaccharides exhibit a great number of reactive hydroxyl groups, which can be exploited for direct esterification, etherification, and various chemical modifications [41].
Starch-based hybrid materials have numerous functionalities and/or novel properties due to the interactions between the individual constituents, mostly associated with synergetic effects, and have been reported in environmental remediation applications [25]. Several starch-based composites have been reported to have a remarkable adsorption tendency for the removal of heavy metals and dyes [45].
3.3 Starch-based hybrid nanomaterials in environmental remediation
3.3.1 Starch/metal or metal oxides or non-valent metals
Table 1 shows the recent examples of the combination of starch and different metal, metal oxide, zero-valent metal, CNTs, and other polymers nanoparticles, such as Au, Ag, Cu, Pd, ZnO, TiO2, nZVI, among others. Nanomaterials are widely used to treat different contamination because of their high specific surface area to volume ratio, rapid kinetics, and high reactivity. However, pure or unmodified nanoparticles tend to agglomerate easily into larger particles that decrease the available specific surface area and reactivity. To improve the colloidal stability of nanoparticles, surface modification has been done by coating with various polymers. Of which starch is one of the relatively cheap and green polysaccharides [53, 59].
Various starch-based hybrid nanomaterials and their applications in environmental remediation.
Rashid et al. reported that modified tapioca starch could be used as an effective surface modifier for nZVI particles for aqueous nitrate removal [53]. Starch-stabilized Fe/Cu nanoparticles in arsenic (As2+ and As5+) removal from the contaminated water where Cu as a metal catalyst was incorporated with Fe0 (nZVI) to form an iron bimetallic nanoparticle; then, the surface was modified to prevent the agglomeration [46]. Well stabilized (dispersed) iron oxides nanoparticles offer greater specific surface area and sorption capacity than the nanoparticles without any stabilizer towards a wide range of pollutants. Starch-functionalized magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles showed much higher As2+ and As5+ sorption capacity than pristine magnetite nanoparticles [59]. Starch-stabilized Fe3O4 nanoparticles can be used as a “green” adsorbent for the effective removal of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in soil and groundwater [47]. Baysal et al. reported that starch-coated TiO2 NPs can be successfully used as adsorbents for the removal and determination of heavy metals such as Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, and Ni [11]. The starch-based SnO2 nanocomposite material can be used as an adsorbent for the removal of highly toxic Hg2+ metal ions from an aqueous medium [51].
3.3.2 Starch/carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
CNTs have gained increased attention in multidisciplinary studies because of their unique physical and chemical properties. However, the hydrophobicity of CNTs may limit their application. The hydrophilicity and biocompatibility of CNTs can be improved by incorporating biopolymers such as starch in the composite system. Incorporating CNTs with starch also helps to overcome the limitation of starch, i.e. weak mechanical properties and poor long-term stability [60, 61]. MWCNT-starch-iron oxide has been reported as a better adsorbent for removing anionic dye methyl orange (MO) and cationic dye methylene blue (MB) from aqueous solutions than MWCNT-iron oxide. The hydrophilic property of soluble starch improved the hydrophilicity of MWCNTs and the dispersion of MWCNT-starch-iron oxide in the aqueous solution. In addition, the increased contact surface between magnetic MWCNT and dyes reduced the aggregates of MWCNTs and facilitated the diffusion of dye molecules to the surface of MWCNTs. Nanoparticles, ZnO, TiO2, or Ag or their complex decompose the adsorbed organic contaminants on MWCNTs as the photocatalysts [60].
3.3.3 Blending starch nanoparticles with different biopolymeric matrices
Starch-based hydrogels have a good adsorption capacity, which can be used for wastewater treatment by removing various cationic or anionic dyes after modification with functional groups [44]. The incorporation of starch into synthetic polymer hydrogel networks improves their swelling and adsorption capacity [44]. Hydrogel as an adsorbent is one of the best candidates for removing soluble dyes from an aqueous solution. The study of methylene blue (MB) adsorption efficiency of NaOH-treated starch/ acrylic acid hydrogel showed high dye-capturing coefficients, which increase with the starch ratio and indicates the possibility of the hydrogels’ application for removing dyes from aqueous solution. In which, starch can be a natural-polymer superabsorbent because of a large number of hydrophilic groups (–OH) and other benefits such as renewable, very cheap, and biodegradable [62]. Biodegradable polymers, starch/cellulose nanowhiskers hydrogel composite, showed outstanding adsorption capacity to be employed in the remediation of methylene blue contaminated wastewaters [63]. Pectin-starch magnetite hybrid nanoparticles could be potential adsorbents for methylene blue dye with higher adsorption efficiency at a low polymer concentration and starch-pectin ratio and can be used to recycle water from the textile industry [58].
3.4 Limitations and future studies for using starch hybrid nanomaterials in environmental remediation
Increased nano-waste release in the environment, bioaccumulation, occupational exposure, and nanotoxicity are the major problems associated with the increased use of nanomaterials in environmental remediation. Nanoparticles incorporated in starch-based hybrid nanomaterials such as Ag, Au, nZVI, TiO2, SiO2, ZnO, Al2O3, CNTs, metal chalcogenides (CdS, CdSe), polymeric nanoparticles, among others, shows toxicity (acute or chronic) in high dose; growth inhibition of microalgae, disruption of membrane integrity, reactive oxygen species generation, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and mutagenicity up to reproduction impairment in aquatic species and many health complications in human [41, 64, 65, 66, 67].
Because of the very small size, nanoparticles are capable of entering the human body by inhalation, ingestion via food, drink, and drugs, skin penetration, or injections and they have the potential to interact with intracellular structures and macromolecules for long periods [68]. Exposure to nanoparticles is associated with a range of acute and chronic effects ranging from inflammation, exacerbation of asthma, and metal fume fever to fibrosis, chronic inflammatory lung diseases, and carcinogenesis [64].
The effect of surface modification of nanoparticles such as nZVI is not clear. Sun et al. reported that surface modifiers enhance the stability of the nZVI that either increase the toxicity due to prolonged exposure to the living organisms or decrease the toxicity via reducing the adhesion of nZVI to living organisms or preventing the release of toxic ions. Starch stabilized nZVI produced higher phytotoxicity compared to bare nZVI, this may be due to the higher dispersity, hydrophilicity, and anti-aggregation of starch/nZVI that enhances their affinity to root surfaces and the oxidability of the Fe0, forming a coating of insoluble Fe3+ compounds on the root surface, and thus interferes the absorption of water and nutrients [69].
In the future, attention will be given to the green synthesis of nanomaterials because not all nanomaterials are produced in an eco-friendly way, as involves acid hydrolysis in multiple steps. There are several systems and methods for the green synthesis of nanoparticles, particularly enzymes, vitamins, microwave, bio-based methods, and from plants and phytochemicals [67, 70]. Green synthesis of nanoparticles using various natural sources, non-toxic solvents, and techniques (ultrasound, microwave, hydrothermal, magnetic, and bioproduction by fungi and other microorganisms) promote eco-friendly, sustainable, less expensive, and free of chemical contaminant production and applications [68].
Nano-wastes should be diluted and neutralized before disposal as they are extraordinarily toxic, hazardous, and/or chemically reactive. Proactive nano-waste management strategies need to be adopted to prevent long-term unintended consequences, and, where possible, nano-waste should be recycled [64].
Remediation is the science of removal or reduction of pollutants from the environment using chemical or biological means. Starch-based hybrid materials are a cost-effective and eco-friendly solution over petroleum-based polymers in environmental remediation. Though starch is a natural polymer with many benefits, including renewability, biodegradability, abundance, eco-friendly, relatively low cost, non-toxic, poor barrier, and mechanical properties, poor processability, high brittleness, and high hydrophilicity are major drawbacks of raw starch. Therefore, starch is modified by physical and/or chemical methods, including gelatinization, etherification, esterification, crosslinking, grafting, oxidation, and enzymatic hydrolysis.
Starch-based hybrid materials have numerous functionalities and/or novel properties, mainly associated with synergetic effects and reported in environmental remediation applications. Starches are incorporated with metal NPs, metal oxide NPs, zero-valet metals, CNTs, and other polymers as reducing, stabilizing, and/or complexing agents to remove various toxic contaminants such as heavy metal, organic contaminants, and dye wastewater and groundwater.
In future studies, various natural starch sources, green synthesis of nanomaterials, recyclability, and toxicity effect of nano-waste should be considered. Further development of biodegradable starch-based hybrids and nanomaterials focusing on new functional materials, processing technology, and cost reduction needs to be studied for commercial application.
1.Ibrahim RK, Hayyan M, AlSaadi MA, Hayyan A, Ibrahim S. Environmental application of nanotechnology: Air, soil, and water. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2016;23:13754-13788. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6457-z
2.Mózner Z, Tabi A, Csutora M. Modifying the yield factor based on more efficient use of fertilizer—The environmental impacts of intensive and extensive agricultural practices. Ecological Indicators. 2012;16:58-66. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.06.034
3.Guerra FD, Attia MF, Whitehead DC, Alexis F. Nanotechnology for environmental remediation: Materials and applications. Molecules. 2018;23:1760. DOI: 10.3390/molecules23071760
4.Singh PP, Ambika. 10—Environmental remediation by nanoadsorbents-based polymer nanocomposite. In: Hussain CM, Mishra AK, editors. New Polym. Nanocomposites Environ. Remediat. USA: Elsevier; 2018. pp. 223-241. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-811033-1.00010-X
5.Khalid S, Shahid M, Niazi NK, Murtaza B, Bibi I, Dumat C. A comparison of technologies for remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils. Journal of Geochemical Exploration. 2017;182:247-268. DOI: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2016.11.021
6.Sharma G, Sharma S, Kumar A, Al-Muhtaseb AH, Naushad M, Ghfar AA, et al. Guar gum and its composites as potential materials for diverse applications: A review. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2018;199:534-545. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.07.053
7.Adekeye DK, Popoola OK, Asaolu SS. Adsorption and conventional technologies for environmental remediation and decontamination of heavy metals: An overview. International Journal of Research and Review. 2019;6:505-516
8.Bushra R. 11—Nanoadsorbents-based polymer nanocomposite for environmental remediation. In: Hussain CM, Mishra AK, editors. New Polym. Nanocomposites Environ. Remediat. USA: Elsevier; 2018. pp. 243-260. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-811033-1.00011-1
9.Kaur J, Pathak T, Singh A, Kumar K. Application of nanotechnology in the environment biotechnology. In: Kumar R, Sharma AK, Ahluwalia SS, editors. Adv. Environ. Biotechnol. Singapore: Springer; 2017. pp. 155-165. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-4041-2_9
10.Singh V, Yadav P, Mishra V. Recent advances on classification, properties, synthesis, and characterization of nanomaterials. In: Green Synth. Nanomater. Bioenergy Appl. Wiley-Black-Well, Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2020. pp. 83-97. DOI: 10.1002/9781119576785.ch3
11.Baysal A, Kuznek C, Ozcan M. Starch coated titanium dioxide nanoparticles as a challenging sorbent to separate and preconcentrate some heavy metals using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry. 2018;98:45-55. DOI: 10.1080/03067319.2018.1427741
12.Bakshi M, Abhilash PC. Chapter 17—Nanotechnology for soil remediation: Revitalizing the tarnished resource. In: Singh P, Borthakur A, Mishra PK, Tiwary D, editors. Nano-Mater. Photocatal. Degrad. Environ. Pollut. USA: Elsevier; 2020. pp. 345-370. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818598-8.00017-1
13.Das S, Sen B, Debnath N. Recent trends in nanomaterials applications in environmental monitoring and remediation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2015;22:18333-18344. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5491-6
14.Zhang Y, Wu B, Xu H, Liu H, Wang M, He Y, et al. Nanomaterials-enabled water and wastewater treatment. NanoImpact. 2016;3-4:22-39. DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2016.09.004
15.Durgalakshmi D, Rajendran S, Naushad M. Current role of nanomaterials in environmental remediation. In: Mu N, Rajendran S, Gracia F, editors. Adv. Nanostructured Mater. Environ. Remediat. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. pp. 1-20. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-04477-0_1
16.Khin MM, Nair AS, Babu VJ, Murugan R, Ramakrishna S. A review on nanomaterials for environmental remediation. Energy & Environmental Science. 2012;5:8075-8109. DOI: 10.1039/C2EE21818F
17.Rawtani D, Khatri N, Tyagi S, Pandey G. Nanotechnology-based recent approaches for sensing and remediation of pesticides. Journal of Environmental Management. 2018;206:749-762. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.11.037
18.Anjum M, Miandad R, Waqas M, Gehany F, Barakat MA. Remediation of wastewater using various nano-materials. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2019;12:4897-4919. DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.10.004
19.Abd-Elsalam KA. Chapter 1—Multifunctional hybrid nanomaterials for sustainable agri-food and ecosystems: A note from the editor. In: Abd-Elsalam KA, editor. Multifunct. Hybrid Nanomater. Sustain. Agri-Food Ecosyst. USA: Elsevier; 2020. pp. 1-19. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-821354-4.00001-7
20.Chauhan BPS. Hybrid Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications. Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons; 2011
21.Anaya-Esparza LM, Villagrán-de la Mora Z, Ruvalcaba-Gómez JM, Romero-Toledo R, Sandoval-Contreras T, Aguilera-Aguirre S, et al. Use of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles as reinforcement agent of polysaccharide-based materials. Processes. 2020;8:1395. DOI: 10.3390/pr8111395
22.Meroni D, Ardizzone S. Preparation and application of hybrid nanomaterials. Nanomaterials. 2018;8:891. DOI: 10.3390/nano8110891
23.Rejab MRBM, Hamdan MHBM, Quanjin M, Siregar JP, Bachtiar D, Muchlis Y. Historical development of hybrid materials. In: Hashmi S, Choudhury IA, editors. Encycl. Renew. Sustain. Mater. Oxford: Elsevier; 2020. pp. 445-455. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.10546-6
24.Nguyen T-P, Yang S-H. 19—Hybrid materials based on polymer nanocomposites for environmental applications. In: Jawaid M, Khan MM, editors. Polym.-Based Nanocomposites Energy Environ. Appl. Woodhead Publishing; 2018. pp. 507-551. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-102262-7.00019-2
25.Vilela C, Pinto RJB, Pinto S, Marques P, Silvestre A, CSdRF B. Polysaccharide Based Hybrid Materials: Metals and Metal Oxides, Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes. Switzerland: Springer Nature; 2018
26.Russo T, Fucile P, Giacometti R, Sannino F. Sustainable removal of contaminants by biopolymers: A novel approach for wastewater treatment. Current State and Future Perspectives. Processes. 2021;9:719. DOI: 10.3390/pr9040719
27.Zheng Y, Monty J, Linhardt RJ. Polysaccharide-based nanocomposites and their applications. Carbohydrate Research. 2015;405:23-32. DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2014.07.016
28.Arora B, Bhatia R, Attri P. 28—Bionanocomposites: Green materials for a sustainable future. In: Hussain CM, Mishra AK, editors. New Polym. Nanocomposites Environ. Remediat. USA: Elsevier; 2018. pp. 699-712. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-811033-1.00027-5
29.Bilal M, Gul I, Basharat A, Qamar SA. Polysaccharides-based bio-nanostructures and their potential food applications. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2021;176:540-557. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.02.107
30.Wen Y, Oh JK. Recent strategies to develop polysaccharide-based nanomaterials for biomedical applications. Macromolecular Rapid Communications. 2014;35:1819-1832. DOI: 10.1002/marc.201400406
31.Kotharangannagari VK, Krishnan K. Biodegradable hybrid nanocomposites of starch/lysine and ZnO nanoparticles with shape memory properties. Materials and Design. 2016;109:590-595. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.046
32.Nasrollahzadeh M, Sajjadi M, Iravani S, Varma RS. Starch, cellulose, pectin, gum, alginate, chitin and chitosan derived (nano)materials for sustainable water treatment: A review. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2021;251:116986. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116986
34.Campelo PH, Sant’Ana AS, Pedrosa Silva Clerici MT. Starch nanoparticles: Production methods, structure, and properties for food applications. Current Opinion in Food Science. 2020;33:136-140. DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2020.04.007
35.Kim H-Y, Park SS, Lim S-T. Preparation, characterization and utilization of starch nanoparticles. Colloids and Surfaces. B, Biointerfaces. 2015;126:607-620. DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.11.011
36.Yu M, Ji N, Wang Y, Dai L, Xiong L, Sun Q. Starch-based nanoparticles: Stimuli responsiveness, toxicity, and interactions with food components. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2021;20:1075-1100. DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12677
37.Ogunsona E, Ojogbo E, Mekonnen T. Advanced material applications of starch and its derivatives. European Polymer Journal. 2018;108:570-581. DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2018.09.039
38.Ragab E, Shaban M, Khalek AA, Mohamed F. Design and characterization of PANI/starch/Fe2O3 bio composite for wastewater remediation. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2021;181:301-312. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.03.043
39.Dehabadi L, Wilson LD. Polysaccharide-based materials and their adsorption properties in aqueous solution. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2014;113:471-479. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2014.06.083
40.Majhi KC, Yadav M. Chapter 5—Synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials using carbohydrates. In: Inamuddin BR, Ahamed MI, Asiri AM, editors. Green Sustain. Process Chem. Environ. Eng. Sci. USA: Elsevier; 2021. pp. 109-135. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-821887-7.00003-3
41.Corsi I, Fiorati A, Grassi G, Pedrazzo AR, Caldera F, Trotta F, et al. Chapter 14—Ecosafe nanomaterials for environmental remediation. In: Bonelli B, Freyria FS, Rossetti I, Sethi R, editors. Nanomater. Detect. Remov. Wastewater Pollut. USA: Elsevier; 2020. pp. 383-405. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818489-9.00014-1
42.Khademian E, Salehi E, Sanaeepur H, Galiano F, Figoli A. A systematic review on carbohydrate biopolymers for adsorptive remediation of copper ions from aqueous environments-part A: Classification and modification strategies. Science of the Total Environment. 2020;738:139829. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139829
43.Le Corre D, Angellier-Coussy H. Preparation and application of starch nanoparticles for nanocomposites: A review. Reactive and Functional Polymers. 2014;85:97-120. DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2014.09.020
44.Pooresmaeil M, Namazi H. Chapter 14—Application of polysaccharide-based hydrogels for water treatments. In: Chen Y, editor. Hydrogels Based Nat. Polym. Elsevier; 2020. pp. 411-455. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-816421-1.00014-8
45.Zubair M, Jarrah N, Ihsanullah KA, Manzar MS, Kazeem TS, et al. Starch-NiFe-layered double hydroxide composites: Efficient removal of methyl orange from aqueous phase. Journal of Molecular Liquids. 2018;249:254-264. DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2017.11.022
46.Babaee Y, Mulligan CN, Rahaman MS. Stabilization of Fe/Cu nanoparticles by starch and efficiency of arsenic adsorption from aqueous solutions. Environmental Earth Sciences. 2017;76:650. DOI: 10.1007/s12665-017-6992-z
47.Gong Y, Wang L, Liu J, Tang J, Zhao D. Removal of aqueous perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) using starch-stabilized magnetite nanoparticles. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;562:191-200. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.100
48.Okuo J, Emina A, Omorogbe S, Anegbe B. Synthesis, characterization and application of starch stabilized zerovalent iron nanoparticles in the remediation of Pb-acid battery soil. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring and Management. 2018;9:12-17. DOI: 10.1016/j.enmm.2017.11.004
49.Mosaferi M, Nemati S, Khataee A, Nasseri S, Hashemi AA. Removal of Arsenic (III, V) from aqueous solution by nanoscale zero-valent iron stabilized with starch and carboxymethyl cellulose. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2014;12:74. DOI: 10.1186/2052-336X-12-74
50.Dong H, He Q, Zeng G, Tang L, Zhang C, Xie Y, et al. Chromate removal by surface-modified nanoscale zero-valent iron: Effect of different surface coatings and water chemistry. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 2016;471:7-13. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2016.03.011
51.Naushad M, Ahamad T, Sharma G, Al-Muhtaseb AH, Albadarin AB, Alam MM, et al. Synthesis and characterization of a new starch/SnO2 nanocomposite for efficient adsorption of toxic Hg2+ metal ion. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2016;300:306-316. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2016.04.084
52.Chen Y, Zhao W, Wang H, Meng X, Zhang L. A novel polyamine-type starch/glycidyl methacrylate copolymer for adsorption of Pb(II), Cu(II), Cd(II) and Cr(III) ions from aqueous solutions. Royal Society Open Science. 2018;5:180281. DOI: 10.1098/rsos.180281
53.Rashid US, Simsek S, Kanel SR, Bezbaruah AN. Modified tapioca starch for iron nanoparticle dispersion in aqueous media: Potential uses for environmental remediation. SN Applied Sciences. 2019;1:1379. DOI: 10.1007/s42452-019-1364-9
54.Moradi E, Ebrahimzadeh H, Mehrani Z, Asgharinezhad AA. The efficient removal of methylene blue from water samples using three-dimensional poly (vinyl alcohol)/starch nanofiber membrane as a green nanosorbent. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2019;26:35071-35081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06400-7.
55.Xia K, Liu X, Wang W, Yang X, Zhang X. Synthesis of modified starch/polyvinyl alcohol composite for treating textile wastewater. Polymers. 2020;12:289. DOI: 10.3390/polym12020289
56.Chowdhury MNK, Ismail AF, Beg MDH, Hegde G, Gohari RJ. Polyvinyl alcohol/polysaccharide hydrogel graft materials for arsenic and heavy metal removal. New Journal of Chemistry. 2015;39:5823-5832. DOI: 10.1039/C5NJ00509D
57.Sharma G, Naushad M, Kumar A, Rana S, Sharma S, Bhatnagar A, et al. Efficient removal of coomassie brilliant blue R-250 dye using starch/poly(alginic acid-cl-acrylamide) nanohydrogel. Process Safety and Environment Protection. 2017;109:301-310. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2017.04.011
58.Nsom MV, Etape EP, Tendo JF, Namond BV, Chongwain PT, Yufanyi MD, et al. A green and facile approach for synthesis of starch-pectin magnetite nanoparticles and application by removal of methylene blue from textile effluent. Journal of Nanomaterials. 2019;2019:e4576135. DOI: 10.1155/2019/4576135
59.Robinson MR, Coustel R, Abdelmoula M, Mallet M. As(V) and As(III) sequestration by starch functionalized magnetite nanoparticles: Influence of the synthesis route onto the trapping efficiency. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials. 2020;21:524-539. DOI: 10.1080/14686996.2020.1782714
60.Chang PR, Zheng P, Liu B, Anderson DP, Yu J, Ma X. Characterization of magnetic soluble starch-functionalized carbon nanotubes and its application for the adsorption of the dyes. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2011;186:2144-2150. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.119
61.Chen Y, Guo Z, Das R, Jiang Q. Starch-based carbon nanotubes and graphene: Preparation, properties and applications. ES Food & Agroforestry. 2020;2:13-21. DOI: 10.30919/esfaf1111
62.Bhuyan MM, Chandra Dafader N, Hara K, Okabe H, Hidaka Y, Rahman MM, et al. Synthesis of potato starch-acrylic-acid hydrogels by gamma radiation and their application in dye adsorption. International Journal of Polymer Science. 2016;2016:e9867859. DOI: 10.1155/2016/9867859
63.Gomes RF, de Azevedo ACN, Pereira AGB, Muniz EC, Fajardo AR, Rodrigues FHA. Fast dye removal from water by starch-based nanocomposites. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 2015;454:200-209. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2015.05.026
64.Gupta R, Xie H. Nanoparticles in daily life: Applications, toxicity and regulations. Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology. 2018;37(3):209-230. DOI: 10.1615/JEnvironPatholToxicolOncol.2018026009
65.Kasai T, Umeda Y, Ohnishi M, Kondo H, Takeuchi T, Aiso S, et al. Thirteen-week study of toxicity of fiber-like multi-walled carbon nanotubes with whole-body inhalation exposure in rats. Nanotoxicology. 2015;9:413-422. DOI: 10.3109/17435390.2014.933903
66.Ray PC, Yu H, Fu PP. Toxicity and environmental risks of nanomaterials: Challenges and future needs. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C: Environmental Carcinogenesis & Ecotoxicology Reviews. 2009;27:1-35. DOI: 10.1080/10590500802708267
67.Xie F, Pollet E, Halley PJ, Avérous L. Advanced nano-biocomposites based on starch. In: Ramawat KG, Mérillon J-M, editors. Polysacch. Bioactivity Biotechnol. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2015. pp. 1467-1553. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-16298-0_50
68.Villaseñor MJ, Ríos Á. Nanomaterials for water cleaning and desalination, energy production, disinfection, agriculture and green chemistry. Environmental Chemistry Letters. 2018;16:11-34. DOI: 10.1007/s10311-017-0656-9
69.Sun Y, Jing R, Zheng F, Zhang S, Jiao W, Wang F. Evaluating phytotoxicity of bare and starch-stabilized zero-valent iron nanoparticles in mung bean. Chemosphere. 2019;236:124336. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.07.067
70.Ciambelli P, La Guardia G, Vitale L. Chapter 7—Nanotechnology for green materials and processes. In: Basile A, Centi G, Falco MD, Iaquaniello G, editors. Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal. Vol. 179. USA: Elsevier; 2020. pp. 97-116. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-64337-7.00007-0
Written By
Ashoka Gamage, Thiviya Punniamoorthy and Terrence Madhujith
Submitted: 05 November 2021Reviewed: 19 November 2021Published: 30 December 2021
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
