Cyber Orbits: The Digital Revolution of Space Security

Abstract

This chapter navigates the intricate landscape of space security in the digital age, exploring the interplay between cybersecurity and the protection of outer space assets. In light of our ever-growing dependence on digital technology and the global exchange of information, traditional concepts of national and global security are experiencing a fundamental evolution. The chapter’s exploration spans from dissecting the concept of national security in the digital age to investigating how global digital dialogs profoundly shape space security. It sheds light on the critical convergence of cyber threats and space security, underscoring the vulnerabilities found in outer space infrastructure. Insightful scrutiny of information warfare within the context of space, ethical considerations surrounding digital surveillance practices, and the collaborative engagement of various stakeholders are thoroughly examined. Ultimately, the chapter advocates for a post-structuralist approach to comprehensively grasp and effectively confront the multifaceted challenges arising in this swiftly evolving domain.

1. Introduction

In the twenty-first century, the integration of digital technology with space operations generated a transformative shift in the operational paradigms of outer space activities [1]. This confluence has both expanded the frontiers of space exploration and provoked a complex array of cybersecurity challenges that imperil the integrity and functionality of space assets [2]. As nations and private entities increasingly rely on satellite systems for communication, navigation, timing, remote sensing, and other critical services, the cybersecurity of space-based systems has risen to the forefront of global security infrastructure [3].

The significance of cybersecurity within the domain of space security cannot be overstated. Cyber threats targeting space assets encompass a broad spectrum of activities, ranging from incursions into satellite communication channels to the disruption of ground control operations and interference with data transmission processes. These threats have the potential to incapacitate national defense systems, disrupt global telecommunications, and compromise critical infrastructure, thereby amplifying the cybersecurity of space systems into a matter of national and international concern [4, 5].

From the outset of this exploration into space security within the digital age, it is essential to engage with the foundational perspectives of structuralism and post-structuralism, providing a nuanced framework for this analysis. Structuralism, a theoretical paradigm that emphasizes the identification and understanding of the underlying structures governing human society and culture, offers a lens through which we can examine the organized frameworks and systems that define space security operations. Theories from Claude Lévi-Strauss and Ferdinand de Saussure provide a methodological foundation for dissecting the stable, invisible structures that underpin the global cybersecurity landscape [6, 7]. Conversely, post-structuralism, emerging as a critique of structuralism’s rigidity, challenges these established norms and assumptions. Inspired by the works of Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, post-structuralist theory invites us to boldly question the power dynamics and discursive formations that shape our understanding of cybersecurity in space, advocating for a more fluid and nuanced interpretation of these complex systems [8, 9]. By weaving these theoretical lenses throughout our discussion, we hope to achieve a dynamic and comprehensive examination of the multifaceted challenges space security faces in the digital era. The objective of this chapter is to shed light on the intricate relationship between cybersecurity and space security in the digital age. Initially, it expands upon the metamorphosis of national security paradigms in response to digital advancements, clarifying how the digital sphere has reshaped traditional perceptions of security. Subsequently, the discussion will transition to the global digital discourse and its ramifications for space security, examining how international endeavors to establish cyber norms and regulations influence space operations. The confluence of cybersecurity threats with space security concerns will be probed in detail, outlining the vulnerabilities endemic to space infrastructure and their ramifications for global security. Moreover, this narrative will encompass the realm of information warfare, illustrating this contemporary form of conflict and its challenges to established norms in space security. Additionally, the chapter will scrutinize the impact of digital surveillance technologies, ethical considerations, and the pivotal roles played by diverse stakeholders in navigating the cybersecurity landscape of space operations. To fully address these challenges, an interdisciplinary approach that integrates both structuralist and post-structuralist theories from the beginning, rather than relegating them to the concluding analysis, enriches our understanding and response to the evolving threats within space security. The concluding section will advocate for a post-structuralist approach to comprehend and address the multifaceted challenges posed by the digital revolution in space security. Through a critical exploration of information warfare and its manifestations in space, we will delve into specific incidents or examples of information warfare tactics in action, portraying the complexities and strategic implications associated with this emerging form of conflict.

2. Deconstructing national security in the digital age

Digital technology operated profound transformations in the paradigms of national security. Traditionally rooted in physical borders and military ability, and transformed by the Copenhagen School of International Relations [10], national security now faces a redefinition within the context of cyberspace and information technology [11]. This evolution reflects the growing recognition that cybersecurity threats pose a significant risk to national infrastructure, undermining a nation’s economic, social, and political stability without a single physical incursion. Concrete examples such as the 2015 cyberattack on Ukraine’s power grid, which left hundreds of thousands without electricity, underscore the vulnerability of critical infrastructure to cyber threats, thereby manifesting the potential for such vulnerabilities to profoundly affect the daily lives of citizens and the functioning of societies [12]. Moreover, the global nature of cyberspace further complicates national security in the digital age. Cyber threats, illustrated by incidents like the 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack impacting over 150 countries [13], transcend national borders, rendering response efforts intricate, underscoring the imperative for international cooperation in cybersecurity endeavors and the holistic reassessment of traditional security frameworks.

The tangible impact of cybersecurity incidents targeting national infrastructure has served as a clear indication of these emerging threats. For instance, the 2015 cyberattack on Ukraine’s power grid, which left hundreds of thousands without electricity, underscored the vulnerability of critical infrastructure to cyber threats and the potential for such vulnerabilities to be exploited, affecting the daily lives of citizens and the functioning of societies [12, 14].

Cyber threats often transcend national borders, rendering attribution and response efforts intricate. The 2017 WannaCry ransomware attack, which impacted more than 150 countries, brought to light the transnational dimension of cyber threats and underscored the imperative for international cooperation in cybersecurity endeavors [13].

At the forefront of national security in the digital age are pivotal national cybersecurity strategy documents outlining comprehensive approaches to safeguard critical infrastructure, disrupt cyber criminals, and engage with international partners to fortify global cybersecurity. For example, the United States’ National Cyber Strategy delineates a comprehensive approach to strengthen critical infrastructure, combat cyber criminals, and foster international collaboration to bolster global cybersecurity [15]. Similarly, the European Union’s Cybersecurity Strategy endeavors to enhance cyber resilience, mitigate cybercrime, and establish a framework for international cooperation in cyberspace [16].

Looking at national security through the epistemological lenses offered by structuralism and post-structuralism, helps us maintain a sharp focus on national security and defense while mapping a wide array of threats as well as perceptions of threats, risks, and vulnerabilities. This early integration of structuralist and post-structuralist theories into our discussion not only deepens our analysis but also primes the reader for a more nuanced understanding of the challenges and strategies in cybersecurity and space security as they evolve throughout Section 3. The global discourse on cyber norms and regulations has assumed pivotal significance in shaping the operational and security paradigms of space activities. This section seeks to examine the impact of such international dialogs and agreements on the governance and security of outer space activities [17], with a dedicated focus on the pivotal role played by key international bodies.

In exploring the convergence of cybersecurity threats and space security, this chapter navigates through the structured paradigms of international cooperation and cybersecurity efforts within the realm of outer space activities. Drawing upon Claude Lévi-Strauss’s structuralist framework, we initially decipher the underlying infrastructures that govern space security policies and practices [6]. This foundational analysis is pivotal for understanding how global security measures are architected and implemented. However, recognizing the limitations of structuralist approaches in addressing the fluid and evolving nature of cybersecurity threats, we then invoke Michel Foucault’s post-structuralist critique of power relations and knowledge systems [8]. Foucault’s insights allow us to question the efficacy and inclusiveness of existing security protocols, suggesting that the power dynamics embedded within the discourse of space security may obscure or neglect emerging threats and challenges.

Furthermore, Jacques Derrida’s concept of deconstruction [9] is employed to unravel the assumptions and binary oppositions—such as secure/insecure, threat/non-threat—that underpin traditional cybersecurity frameworks. Through this deconstructive lens, we identify the potential for reinterpretation and reconfiguration of space security measures, advocating for a more adaptive and nuanced approach that is responsive to the complex interplay between technological advancements and cybersecurity challenges. This integrated structuralist and post-structuralist analysis illuminates the complexities of safeguarding space infrastructure, highlighting the need for ongoing critical evaluation and innovation in security strategies to ensure the resilient and sustainable use of outer space.

The concerted efforts of international organizations, such as the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UN OOSA) and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), have been instrumental in fostering international cooperation for the peaceful use and exploration of outer space. Through their comprehensive work, including the Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities [18], UN OOSA has laid the groundwork for a collaborative approach to confronting the cybersecurity challenges confronting space assets and operations. The ITU’s emphasis on ensuring secure and reliable communication links, as outlined in their latest reports and regulations, directly impacts satellite communications and global connectivity [19, 20]. Similarly, the ITU’s emphasis on ensuring secure and reliable communication links assumes particular relevance in the context of satellite communications, where vulnerabilities may have far-reaching implications for global connectivity and security. Additionally, the United Nations has initiated several projects aimed at strengthening cybersecurity in space, including the recent resolution discussed by the General Assembly to promote international collaboration in this area, as well as the work of the Group of Governmental Experts on Advancing Responsible State Behavior in Cyberspace in the Context of International Security [21].

Reflecting upon the series of UN resolutions designed to enhance cybersecurity within the space domain [21, 22], the applicability of Foucault’s theories on power relations and knowledge construction becomes evident in the formation and interpretation of international norms [8]. These resolutions not only underscore the imperative for member states to enact protective measures against cyber threats but also illuminate the power dynamics involved in the creation and adoption of global security standards. Furthermore, viewing these normative frameworks through the lens of Derrida’s deconstruction theory [9], prompts critical inquiry into whose interests are served by these norms and how they might be reinterpreted to more accurately reflect the emerging realities of space security. Thus, the discussion surrounding UN resolutions is enriched by acknowledging that, while they serve as responses to cyber threats, they are also manifestations of complex power structures, warranting detailed examination.

The proactive engagement of international bodies, such as the ITU and UN OOSA, through their regulations, guidelines, and collaborative projects, provides a solid foundation for this evolution. However, a deeper understanding and application of theories such as those proposed by Foucault and Derrida enable a critical examination of these efforts, urging continuous adaptation and innovation. Thinking through the lenses of post-structuralist theory not only enriches our understanding of the cybersecurity landscape in space operations but also challenges us to rethink and redefine the parameters of space security in the digital age. By critically engaging with the constructs of power and knowledge that shape space security discourse, this chapter advocates for a more inclusive and dynamic framework that is capable of addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by cyber threats to space assets and operations. This reevaluation is essential as we advance toward a more interconnected and digitally reliant space environment, where traditional security paradigms must evolve to address the nuanced and ever-changing landscape of cyber threats.

3. Convergence of cyber and space security threats

The convergence of cyber and space security threats represents a critical frontier in the protection and maintenance of global communication, navigation, and surveillance systems. The integrity of space infrastructure, encompassing both outer space assets, that is, satellites and ground stations, stands as a critical cornerstone for national security, scientific inquiry, and commercial endeavors. However, the digitization of space operations has exposed these assets to cyber threats, ranging from signal manipulation and spoofing to unauthorized access and control of satellite systems.

These vulnerabilities, often stemming from outdated security protocols and the utilization of commercial off-the-shelf technologies, pose significant risks as adversaries may exploit them to disrupt communication channels or manipulate data [23, 24]. Notable instances, such as the 2007 cyber intrusion compromising the control systems of a commercial satellite and the 2014 cyber intrusions targeting satellite ground stations, underscore these risks vividly. These incidents not only highlight the tangible risks posed by cybersecurity threats to space security but also emphasize the imperative for robust security measures and international cooperation to shield space assets from malicious cyber activities.

The vulnerabilities in space infrastructure seen from a cybersecurity standpoint stem from various factors, including the reliance on legacy systems employing outdated security protocols, the utilization of commercial off-the-shelf technologies that may lack robust security measures, and the intricate nature of international collaborations that complicate the establishment of unified security standards [2]. These vulnerabilities indicate significant risks, as adversaries may exploit them to disrupt communication channels, manipulate data, or even seize control of critical satellite functions. Some space systems still use hardcoded credentials, which can be exploited by attackers. Vulnerabilities in onboard software can lead to unauthorized control or data manipulation, in addition to those vulnerabilities that could be introduced by various vendors of components mounted on satellites and other space assets.

A striking instance that illustrates the intersection of cybersecurity threats and space security unfolded in 2007 and 2014 when several countries reported unauthorized access and interference with their satellite operations [25]. Other examples are demonstrated by insurgents intercepting and decoding surveillance video in Iraq in 2009 and hackers seizing control of NASA’s Terra earth observing system (EOS) for extended periods in 2008 [26]. These cyber intrusions, attributed to state-sponsored actors, involved the exploitation of vulnerabilities in satellite communication systems and ground control stations, resulting in transient disruptions and the potential for graver consequences had the attacks escalated [23, 27].

These examples serve as a clarion call for the implementation of comprehensive security protocols and the fostering of international collaboration. By understanding these vulnerabilities and responding with concerted efforts, the international community can better protect the vital infrastructure that underpins both national and global security in the space domain.

4. Information warfare in space

The advent of digital technology has expanded the domain of space operations and introduced sophisticated forms of conflict, notably information warfare, into the extraterrestrial domain. Information warfare, a concept historically confined to cyberspace and electronic communication channels on Earth, has transcended atmospheric boundaries, emerging in space through advanced tactics such as signal jamming and global navigation satellite system (GNSS) spoofing. These tactics epitomize a significant shift in the nature of military operations [28], extending the theater of war into space, where control over information and communication lines becomes a pivotal aspect of strategic dominance [29, 30].

The extension of information warfare into space necessitates a reevaluation of existing security protocols and the development of innovative countermeasures to protect space infrastructure. By integrating cyber resilience frameworks, along with the adoption of advanced encryption technologies and intrusion detection systems, the international space community asserts its commitment to preserving the integrity of space operations amidst the burgeoning threats of information warfare [2, 24].

Moreover, international cooperation and the establishment of norms and regulations governing the use of space for military purposes become essential in mitigating the risks associated with information warfare in space [28]. Initiatives led by organizations such as north atlantic treaty organization (NATO), in conjunction with dialogs in international forums, play a pivotal role in shaping a collective response to these emerging challenges, underscoring the importance of collaborative efforts in securing the space domain in the era of digital conflict [1, 29]. The criticality of such cooperation is highlighted by the ongoing efforts to develop a comprehensive legal and ethical framework for space operations, ensuring a balanced approach to space security that encompasses both military and civilian interests. Moreover, ongoing research focuses on the development of post-quantum algorithms, aimed at bolstering resistance against potential quantum attacks. Given the long lifecycles of space systems, the implementation of quantum-safe cryptography is crucial to ensuring enduring security and resilience.

5. Digital surveillance, ethics, and space

The rapid technological advancements have significantly expanded surveillance capabilities, particularly through space-based technologies such as satellites equipped with high-resolution imaging and signal interception capabilities. While serving as a powerful tool for ensuring national security, the omnipresent surveillance apparatus simultaneously poses significant risks to individual privacy and civil liberties, leading to an ethical quandary surrounding the potential misuse of these technologies. These ethical dilemmas were underscored by the global surveillance disclosures of the early twenty-first century, prompting calls for a reassessment of surveillance practices and oversight mechanisms.

Reports from organizations such as Privacy International [31] and the Electronic Frontier Foundation [32] provide valuable insights into the potential overreach of surveillance practices, advocating for stringent safeguards to protect individual rights in the digital age. The pressing need for ethical considerations within digital surveillance through space technologies must be met with robust regulatory frameworks and oversight mechanisms to ensure the responsible and ethical use of space-based surveillance technologies. The delicate balance between leveraging these technologies for security and prioritizing individual rights underscores the imperative for ethical vigilance, global cooperation, and continuous assessment of the ethical implications of space-based surveillance.

The ethical dilemmas pertinent to digital surveillance in space were underscored by the global surveillance disclosures of the early twenty-first century. These revelations brought to light the extent to which governments could intercept personal communications and track individuals on a global scale, prompting a worldwide debate on privacy rights and state surveillance. The profound impact of these disclosures on international relations prompted calls for the reassessment of surveillance practices and oversight mechanisms, highlighting the delicate balance needed between leveraging space technologies for security and upholding ethical standards and respect for privacy.

Given the rapid pace of technological advancement and the international nature of space, a critical need arises for a global dialog on the establishment of norms and regulations that govern the use of space for surveillance purposes. Studies and policy analyses offer a foundational framework for understanding the complexity of space surveillance ethics [33]. These studies elucidate the challenges and propose pathways toward equitable space surveillance governance [17], emphasizing the importance of international legal cooperation and the establishment of transparent regulatory mechanisms.

6. Toward a post-structuralist approach in space cybersecurity

As the digital age continues to reframe space security, a need arises for a reassessment of traditional security frameworks to effectively address the multilayered and evolving threats characteristic of this era. The complexity encapsulating these challenges underscores the requirement for a more refined understanding and an adaptive approach to space security. A post-structuralist approach offers a promising pathway for reimagining space security early in this discourse. This theoretical framework emphasizes the deconstruction of traditional power structures, the interrogation of established narratives, and the exploration of the fluidity of power relations in the cyber and space domains. Post-structuralism’s intrinsic critique of fixed meanings and identities facilitates a more flexible and comprehensive analysis of security challenges that transcend national boundaries and defy simplistic solutions. In the application of a post-structuralist framework to space security, there is an acknowledgment of the significance of examining how language, discourse, and power dynamics shape our comprehension of security threats and responses. This perspective encourages a critical evaluation of the assumptions underpinning current security practices and the exploration of alternative strategies that are more inclusive and adaptable to the rapidly changing technological landscape. Moreover, the incorporation of structuralist theory enriches our understanding by providing a contrast to post-structuralist critiques and fostering interdisciplinary dialog on space security dynamics. Furthermore, a post-structuralist approach promotes a holistic understanding of the global nature of space security, recognizing the interconnectedness of all actors involved, from nation-states to private entities and international organizations. To this end, incorporating structuralist theory, as it highlights the underlying frameworks within which these power structures operate, provides a foundational contrast to the post-structuralist critique.

This theoretical framework emphasizes the deconstruction of traditional power structures, the interrogation of established narratives, and the exploration of the fluidity of power relations in the cyber and space domains. Post-structuralism’s intrinsic critique of fixed meanings and identities facilitates a more flexible and comprehensive analysis of security challenges that transcend national boundaries and defy simplistic solutions [8, 9]. From the outset, the dialog between structuralist insights and post-structuralist critiques enriches our understanding of space security dynamics.

Exploring critical perspectives from theorists such as Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida sheds light on the complex interplay between language, discourse, and power dynamics in shaping security responses. This perspective encourages a critical evaluation of the assumptions underpinning current security practices and the exploration of alternative strategies that are more inclusive and adaptable to the rapidly changing technological landscape. For instance, the analysis of space security discourses can unveil how certain threats are prioritized over others, reflecting broader geopolitical interests rather than an objective assessment of risks [34].

Furthermore, a post-structuralist approach promotes a holistic understanding of the global nature of space security, recognizing the interconnectedness of all actors involved, from nation-states to private entities and international organizations. This standpoint advocates for collaborative and multi-stakeholder strategies that transcend traditional power hierarchies, fostering a more equitable and effective governance of space activities [35].